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GRADED  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH. 


AN   ELEMENTARY   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


CONSISTING  OP  ONE  HUNDEED  PRACTICAL  LESSONS  CAREFULLY 
GRADED   AND   ADAPTED  TO  THE   CLASS-ROOM. 


BY 

ALONZO   ^EED,   A.M., 

FORMERLY   INSTRUCTOR   IN   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR    IN    THE   POLYTECHNIC    INSTITUTE,   BROOKLYN 

AND 

BRAINERD  KELLOGG,   LL.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE   IN   THE 
POLYTECHNIC    INSTITUTE,    BROOKLYN. 


REVISED   EDITION,    1901. 


NEW  YORK: 
MAYNARD,  MERRILL,   &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 

1904. 


^iWcwPLtt'i;'. 'course  IN  ENGLIS^!?/  , 


Alonzo  Reed,  A.M.,  and  Brainerd  Kellogg,  LL.D. 

IBED'S  WORD  LESSONS.  A  Complete  Speller.  Designed  to  teach  the  correct  spelli 
pronunciation,  and  use  of  such  words  only  as  are  most  common  in  current  literature,  and 
as  are  most  likely  to  be  misspelled,  mispronounced,  or  misused,  and  to  awaken  new 
interest  in  the  study  of  synonyms  and  of  word-analysis.     188  pages,  i2mo. 

SEED'S  INTRODUCTORY  LA^THGE  WORK.  A  simple,  varied,  and  pleasing,  but 
methodical  series  of  exercises  lish  to  precede  the  study  of  technical  grammar.     253 

pages,  i6mo,  cloth. 

SEED  &  KELLOGG 'S  GRAJ  ^.  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH.  An  elementary  English 
grammar,  consisting  of  on«  hundred  practical  lessons,  carefully  graded  and  adapted  to  the 
class  room.     280  pages,  1     ib,  cloth. 

SEED  &  KELLOGG' S  JHE*  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH.  A  work  on  English  gram- 
mar  and  composition  m  which  the  science  of  the  language  is  made  tributary  to  the  art  of 
expression.  A  course  of  practical  lessons  carefully  graded,  and  adapted  to  everyday  use 
in  the  schoolroom.     386  pages,  i6mo,  cloth. 

&BED  &  KELLOGG 'S  HIGH  SCHOOL  GRAMMAR.  A  work  dealing  with  the  science 
of  the  English  language,  the  history  of  the  parts  of  speech,  the  philosophy  of  the  changes 
these  have  undergone,  and  with  present  usage  respecting  forms  in  dispute.  285  pages, 
i6mo,  cloth. 

KELLOGG  &  REED'S  WORD-BUILDING.  Fifty  lessons,  combining  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Anglo-Saxon  roots,  prefixes,  and  suffixes,  into  about  fifty-five  hundred  common  derivative 
words  in  English;  with  a  brief  history  of  the  English  language.     122  pages,  i6mo,  cloth, 

KELLOGG  &  REED'S  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  A  brief  history  of  the  gram- 
matical changes  of  the  language  and  its  vocabulary,  with  exercises  on  synonyms,  prefixes, 
suffixes,  word-analysis,  and  word-building.  A  text-book  for  high  schools  and  colleges. 
220  pages,  i6mo,  cloth. 

KELLOGG 'S  TEXT-BOOK  ON  RHETORIC.  Revised  and  enlarged  edition.  Supple- 
menting the  development  of  the  science  with  exhaustive  practice  in  composition.  A 
course  of  practical  lessons  adapted  for  use  in  high  schools,  academies,  and  lower  classes 
of  colleges.     345  pages,  i2mo,  cloth. 

KBLLOGG'S  TEXT-BOOK  ON  ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  With  copious  extracts  from 
the  leading  authors,  English  and  American,  and  full  instructions  as  to  the  method  in 
which  the  book  is  to  be  studied.     485  pages,  i2mo,  cloth. 


Copyright  1889,  1894,  1896  by  Alonzo  Reed  and  Brainerd  Kellogg  ; 
and  1901  by  Frances  M.  Reed  and  Brainerd  Kellogg. 


PREFACE. 


The  plan  of  "Graded  aad  Higher  Lessons  in  English"  will  perhaps  be 
better  understood  if  we  first  speak  of  two  classes  of  text-books  with  which 
this  course  is  brought  into  competition. 

Method  of  One  Class  of  Text-book  i  one  class  are  those  that 

aim  chiefly  to  present  a  course  of  techno.  rammar  in  the  order  of 
Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. .  These  books  give  large 
space  to  grammatical  Etymology,  and  demand  ri ;ch  memorizing  of  defi- 
nitions, rules,  declensions,  and  conjugations,  and  much  formal  word 
parsing,  — work  of  which  a  considerable  portion  il'f'ierely  the  invention 
of  grammarians,  and  has  little  value  in  determinirig  the  pupil's  use  of 
language  or  in  developing  his  reasoning  faculties.  This  is  a  revival  of  the 
long-endured,  unfruitful,  old-time  method. 

Method  of  Another  Class  of  Text-books.  —  In  another  class  are 
those  that  present  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  lessons  in  Composition, 
Spelling,  Pronunciation,  Sentence-analysis,  Technical  Grammar,  and  Gen- 
eral Information,  without  unity  or  continuity.  The  pupil  who  completes 
these  books  will  have  gained  something  by  practice  and  will  have  picked 
up  some  scraps  of  knowledge  ;  but  his  information  will  be  vague  and  dis- 
connected, and  he  will  have  missed  that  mental  training  which  it  is  the 
aim  of  a  good  text-book  to  afford.  A  text-book  is  of  value  just  so  far  as 
it  presents  a  clear,  logical  development  of  its  subject.  It  must  present  its 
science  or  its  art  as  a  natural  growth,  otherwise  there  is  no  justification 
of  its  being. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  the  Proper  Use  of  Words.  —  It  is 
the  plan  of  this  course  to  trace  with  easy  steps  the  natural  development 
of  xhe  sentence,  to  consider  the  leading  facts  first  and  then  to  descend  to 
the  details.  To  begin  with  the  parts  of  speech  is  to  begin  with  details 
and  to  disregard  the  higher  unities,  without  which  the  details  are  scarcely 
intelligible.  The  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word  belongs  is  determined 
only  by  its  function  in  the  sentence,  and  inflections  simply  umark  the 
offices  and  relations  of  words.  Unless  the  pupil  has  been  systematically 
trained  to  discover  the  functions  and  relations  of  words  as  elements  of  an 

3 


ivI£085Q3 


4  Preface. 

organic  whole,  his  knowledge  of  the  parts  of  speech  is  of  little  value.  It 
is  not  because  he  cannot  conjugate  the  verb  or  decline  the  pronoun  that 
he  falls  into  such  errors  as  "  How  many  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels  ?  " 
"Five  years'  interest  are  due."  u  She  is  older  than  me."  He  probably 
would  not  say  ikeach  have"  "interest  are,"  "me  am."  One  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  structure  of  the  sentence  will  find  little  trouble  in  using 
correctly  the  few  inflectional  forms  in  English. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  the  Laws  of  Discourse.  —  Through 
the  study  of  the  sentence  we  not  only  arrive  at  an  intelligent  knowledge 
of  the  parts  of  speech  and  a  correct  use  of  grammatical  forms,  but  we 
discover  the  laws  of  discourse  in  general.  In  the  sentence  the  student 
should  find  the  law  of  unity,  of  continuity,  of  proportion,  of  order.  All 
good  writing  consists  of  good  sentences  properly  joined.  Since  the  sen- 
tence is  the  foundation  or  unit  of  discourse,  it  is  all-important  that  the 
pupil  should  know  the  sentence.  He  should  be  able  to  put  the  principal 
and  the  subordinate  parts  in  their  proper  relation ;  he  should  know  the 
exact  function  of  every  element,  its  relation  to  other  elements,  and  its 
relation  to  the  whole.  He  should  know  the  sentence  as  the  skillful 
engineer  knows  his  engine,  that,  when  there  is  a  disorganization  of  parts, 
he  may  at  once  find  the  difficulty  and  the  remedy  for  it. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  the  Sake  of  Translation.  —  The 
laws  of  thought  being  the  same  for  all  nations,  the  logical  analysis  of  the 
sentence  is  the  same  for  all  languages.  When  a  student  who  has  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  the  English  sentence  comes  to  the  translation  of  a  foreign 
language,  he  finds  his  work  greatly  simplified.  If  in  a  sentence  of  his 
own  language  he  sees  only  a  mass  of  unorganized  words,  how  much 
greater  must  be  his  confusion  when  this  mass  of  words  is  in  a  foreign 
tongue  !  A  study  of  the  parts  of  speech  is  a  far  less  important  prepara- 
tion for  translation,  since  the  declensions  and  conjugations  in  English  do 
not  conform  to  those  of  other  languages.  Teachers  of  the  classics  and  of 
modern  languages  are  beginning  to  appreciate  these  facts. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  Discipline.  —  Asa  means  of  disci- 
pline nothing  can  compare  with  a  training  in  the  logical  analysis  of  the 
sentence.  To  study  thought  through  its  outward  form,  the  sentence,  and 
to  discover  the  fitness  of  the  different  parts  of  the  expression  to  the  parts 
of  the  thought,  is  to  learn  to  think.  It  has  been  noticed  that  pupils 
thoroughly  trained  in  the  analysis  and  the  construction  of  sentences  come 
to  their  other  studies  with  a  decided  advantage  in  intellectual  power. 
These  results  can  be  obtained  only  by  systematic  and  persistent  work. 
Experienced  teachers  understand  that  a  few  weak  lessons  on  the  sentence 


Preface. 


■ 





:!  WHOOL] 


at  the  beginning  of  a  course  and  a  few  at  the  end  can  afford  little  disci- 
pline and  little  knowledge  that  will  endure,  and  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
sentence  cannot  be  gained  by  memorizing  complicated  rules  and  labored 
forms  of  analysis.  To  compel  a  pupil  to  wade  through  a  page  or  two  of 
such  bewildering  terms  as  ''complex  adverbial  element  of  the  second 
class"  and  "compound  prepositional  adjective  phrase,"  in  order  to  com- 
prehend a  few  simple  functions,  is  grossly  unjust ;  it  is  a  substitution  of 
form  for  content,  of  words  for  ideas. 

Subdivisions  and  Modifications  after  the  Sentence.  —  Teachers 
familiar  with  text-books  that  group  all  grammatical  instruction  around 
the  eight  parts  of  speech,  making  eight  independent  units,  will  not,  in  the 
following  lessons,  find  everything  in  its  accustomed  place.  But,  when  it 
is  remembered  that  the  thread  of  connection  unifying  this  work  is  the 
sentence,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lessons  fall  into  their  natural  order  of 
sequence.  When,  through  the  development  of  the  sentence,  all  the  offices 
of  the  different  parts  of  speech  are  mastered,  the  most  natural  thing  is  to 
continue  the  work  of  classification  and  subdivide  the  parts  of  speech. 
The  inflection  of  words,  being  distinct  from  their  classification,  makes  a 
separate  division  of  the  work.  If  the  chief  end  of  grammar  were  to  enable 
one  to  parse,  we  should  not  here  depart  from  long-established  precedent. 

Sentences  in  Groups  —  Paragraphs.  —  In  tracing  the  growth  of  the 
sentence  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex  form,  each  element,  as 
it  is  introduced,  is  illustrated  by  a  large  number  of  detached  sentences, 
chosen  with  the  utmost  care  as  to  thought  and  expression.  These  compel 
the  pupil  to  confine  his  attention  to  one  thing  till  he  gets  it  well  in  hand. 
Paragraphs  from  literature  are  then  selected  and  are  used  at  intervals, 
with  questions  and  suggestions  to  enforce  principles  already  presented,  and 
to  prepare  the  way  informally  for  the  regular  lessons  that  follow.  The 
lessons  on  these  selections  are,  however,  made  to  take  a  much  wider 
scope.  They  lead  the  pupil  to  discover  how  and  why  sentences  are 
grouped  into  paragraphs,  and  how  paragraphs  are  related  to  each  other ; 
and  they  lead  him  on  to  discover  whatever  is  most  worthy  of  imitation 
in  .the  style  of  the  several  models  presented. 

The  Use  of  the  Diagram.  —  In  written  analysis,  the  simple  map,  or 
diagram,  found  in  the  following  lessons,  will  enable  the  pupil  to  present 
directly  and  vividly  to  the  eye  the  exact  function  of  every  clause  in  the 
sentence,  of  every  phrase  in  the  clause,  and  of  every  word  in  the  phrase 
—  to  picture  the  complete  analysis  of  the  sentence,  with  principal  and 
subordinate  parts  in  their  proper  relations.  It  is  only  by  the  aid  of  such 
a  map,  or  picture,  that  the  pupil  can,  at  a  single  view,  see  the  sentence 


6  Preface. 

as  an  organic  whole  made  up  of  many  parts  performing  various  func- 
tions and  standing  in  various  relations.  Without  such  a  map  he  must 
labor  under  the  disadvantage  of  seeing  all  these  things  by  piecemeal 
or  in  succession. 

But,  if  for  any  reason  the  teacher  prefers  not  to  use  these  diagrams, 
they  may  be  omitted  without  causing  the  slightest  break  in  the  work. 
The  plan  of  this  book  is  in  no  way  dependent  on  the  use  of  the  diagrams. 

The  Objections  to  the  Diagram.  —  The  fact  that  the  pictorial  dia- 
gram groups  the  parts  of  a  sentence  according  to  their  offices  and  rela- 
tions, and  not  in  the  order  of  speech,  has  been  spoken  of  as  a  fault.  It 
is,  on  the  contrary,  a  merit,  for  it  teaches  the  pupil  to  look  through  the 
literary  order  and  discover  the  logical  order.  He  thus  learns  what  the 
literary  order  really  is,  and  sees  that  this  may  be  varied  indefinitely,  so 
long  as  the  logical  relations  are  kept  clear. 

The  assertion  that  correct  diagrams  can  be  made  mechanically  is  not 
borne  out  by  the  facts.  It  is  easier  to  avoid  precision  in  oral  analysis 
than  in  written.  The  diagram  drives  the  pupil  to  a  most  searching 
examination  of  the  sentence,  brings  him  face  to  face  with  every  difficulty, 
and  compels  a  decision  on  every  point. 

The  Abuse  of  the  Diagram. — Analysis  by  diagram  often  becomes 
so  interesting  and  so  helpful  that,  like  other  good  things,  it  is  liable  to 
be  overdone.  There  is  danger  of  requiring  too  much  written  analysis. 
When  the  ordinary  constructions  have  been  made  clear,  diagrams  should 
be  used  only  for  the  more  difficult  sentences;  or,  if  the  sentences  are 
long,  only  for  the  more  difficult  parts  of  them.  In  both  oral  and  written 
analysis  there  is  danger  of  repeating  what  needs  no  repetition.  When 
the  diagram  has  served  its  purpose,  it  should  be  dropped. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

TWENTY-FIVE  CAKEFULLY  GRADED   STEPS   IN  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPO- 
SITION;  AND  RULES  FOR  CAPITALIZATION  AND   PUNCTUATION 
AS  NEEDED. 

PAOX 

1.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Sentences  with  Simple  Subjects 

and  Predicates  —  Capital  Letters,  Period,  Interrogation  Point, 
Parts  of  Speech,  Nouns,  Verbs,  Pronouns       ....  9-33 

2.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Sentences  with  Subjects  modified 

by  Adjectives 33^4 

3.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Sentences  with  Predicates  modified 

by  Adverbs      .        .        .         .        .        .        .  .         44-60 

4.  Analysis   and    Composition  of    Sentences  with    Subjects  and 

Predicates   modified  by  Prepositional  Phrases — The  Para- 
graph, Prepositions 60-66 

5.  Expansion  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs  into  Phrases,  and  Con- 

traction of  Phrases  into  Adjectives  and  Adverbs     .         .         66^  67 

6.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Sentences  with  Compound  Sub- 

jects and  Predicates  —  Conjunctions,  Interjections,  Exclama- 
tion Point 70-79 

7.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Sentences  with  Nouns,  Pronouns, 

and  Adjectives  as  Complements  —  Object  Complement,  Attri- 
bute Complement,  Narration,  Position  and  Use  of  Modifiers  . 

79-84,  95-97 

8.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Sentences  with  Participles  and 

Infinitive  Phrases  —  The  Participle,  Descriptive  Writing      102-108 

9.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Sentences  with  Nouns  and  Pro- 

nouns as  Modifiers —  Comma,  Argument         .        .        .      115-120 

10.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Complex  Sentences  containing 

Adjective  Clauses 124-128 

11.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Complex  Sentences  containing 

Adverb  Clauses 129-132 

7 


8  Table  of  Contents. 

PAGE 

12.  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Complex  Sentences  containing 

Noun  Clauses 136-139 

13.  Analysis  and   Composition  of   Compound   Sentences  —  Inde- 

pendent Clauses 140,  141 

14.  Declarative,  Interrogative,  Imperative,  and  Exclamatory  Sen- 

tences               ....  141-144 

15.  Expansion  and  Contraction  —  Continued    ....  147-150 

16.  Classes  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  Sentences      .         .         .  157-160 

17.  Classes  of  Adjectives  in  Sentences 161,162 

18.  Classes  of  Verbs  in  Sentences 162-165 

19.  Classes  of  Adverbs  in  Sentences 166,  167 

20.  Classes  of  Conjunctions  and  of  Other  Connectives  in  Sentences 

167-170 

21.  Nouns  and  Pronouns  with  all  their  Modifications  in  Sentences 

176-192 

22.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs  with  their  one  Modification  in  Sen- 

tences             193-197 

23.  Verbs  with  all  their  Modifications  in  Sentences         .         .      197-217 

24.  Composition  of   Sentences  in   Paragraphs  and  of  Paragraphs 

in  Themes        .    56-60,  86-89,  108-113,  122-124,  133-136,  145,  146, 

152-156,  171-174 

25.  Composition  of  Paragraphs  in  Letters  —  Summary  of  Rules  of 

Syntax,  Proof  Marks        . 229-246 

Review  of  Graded  Lessons    .         .         .         .         .         .         .      247-271 

Abbreviations .     272 

Index 279 


A   TALK   ON   LANGUAGE; 


The  teacher  is  recommended  to  occupy  the  time  of  at 
least  two  or  three  recitations,  in  talking  with  his  pupils 
about  language,  always  remembering  that,  in  order  to 
secure  the  interest  of  his  class,  he  must  allow  his  pupils  to 
take  an  active  part  in  the  exercise.  The  teacher  should 
guide  the  thought  of  his  class ;  but,  if  he  attempts  to  do 
all  the  talking,  he  will  find,  when  he  concludes,  that  he 
has  been  left  to  do  all  the  thinking. 

We  give  below  a  few  hints  in  conducting  this  talk  on 
language,  but  the  teacher  is  not  expected  to  confine  him- 
self to  them.  He  will,  of  course,  be  compelled,  in  some 
instances,  to  resort  to  various  devices  in  order  to  obtain 
from  the  pupils  answers  equivalent  to  those  here  sug- 
gested. 

LESSON  1. 

Teacher.  —  I  will  pronounce  these  three  sounds  very  slowly  and 
distinctly,  thus  :  b-u-d.  Notice,  it  is  the  power,  or  sound,  of  the 
letter,  and  not  its  name,  that  I  give.     What  did  you  hear? 

Pupil.  —  I  heard  three  sounds. 

T. — Give  them.  I  will  write  on  the  board,  so  that  you  can  see 
them,  three  letters  —  b-u-d.  Are  these  letters,  taken  separately, 
signs  to  you  of  anything? 

P.  —  Yes,  they  are  signs  to  me  of  the  three  sounds  that  I  have 
just  heard. 

9 


,  10  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


T.  — -  What  then  do  these  letters,  taken  separately,  picture  to  your  eye? 

P.  —  They  picture  the  sounds  that  came  to  my  ear. 

T.  —  Letters  then  are  the  signs  of  what  ? 

P.  —  Letters  are  the  signs  of  sounds. 

T.  —  I  will  pronounce  the  same  sounds  rapidly,  uniting  them  more 
closely  —  bud.  These  sounds,  so  united,  form  a  spoken  word.  Of 
what  do  you  think  when  you  hear  the  word  bud? 

P.  —  I  think  of  a  little  round  thing  that  grows  to  be  a  leafy  branch 
or  a  flower. 

T.  —  Did  you  see  the  thing  when  you  were  thinking  of  it  I 

P.— No. 

T.  —  Then  you  must  have  had  a  picture  of  it  in  your  mind.  We 
call  this  mental  picture  an  idea.     What  called  up  this  idea  1 

P.  —  It  was  called  up  by  the  word  bud,  which  I  heard. 

T.  —  A  spoken  word  then  is  the  sign  of  what  ? 

P.  —  A  spoken  -word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

T.  —  I  will  call  up  the  same  idea  in  another  way.  I  will  write 
three  letters  and  unite  them  thus  :  bud.     What  do  you  see? 

P.  —  I  see  the  word  bud. 

T.  —  If  we  call  the  other  word  bud  a  spoken  word,  what  shall  we 
call  this? 

P.  —  This  is  a  written  word. 

T.  —  If  they  stand  for  the  same  idea,  how  do  they  differ? 

P.  —  I  see  this,  and.  I  heard  that. 

T.  —  You  will  observe  that  we  have  called  attention  to  four  differ- 
ent things  :  viz.,  the  real  bud ;  your  mental  picture  of  the  bud, 
which  we  have  called  an  idea ;  and  the  two  words,  which  we  have 
called  signs  of  this  idea,  the  one  addressed  to  the  ear,  and  the  other 
to  the  eye. 

If  the  pupil  be  brought  to  see  these  distinctions,  it  may  aid  him  to 
observe  more  closely  and  express  himself  more  clearly. 


A  Talk  on  Language.  11 


LESSON  2. 


Teacher.  —  What  did  you  learn  in  the  previous  Lesson  1 
Pupil.  —  I  learned  that  a  spoken  word  is  composed  of  certain 
sounds ;  that  a  written  word  is  composed  of  letters ;  that  letters  are 
signs  of  sounds ;  and  that  spoken  and  written  words  are  the  signs  of 
ideas. 

This  question  should  be  passed  from  one  pupil  to  another  till  all  of 
these  answers  are  elicited. 

All  the  written  words,  in  all  the  English  books  ever  made  are  formed 
of  twenty-six  letters,  representing  about  forty-four  sounds.  These  let- 
ters and  these  sounds  make  up  what  is  called  verbal  language. 

Of  these  twenty-six  letters,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y, 
are  called  vowels,  and  the  remainder  are  called  consonants. 

In  order  that  you  may  understand  what  kind  of  sounds  the  vowels 
stand  for,  and  what  kinds  the  consonants  represent,  I  will  tell  you 
something  about  the  human  voice. 

The  air  breathed  out  from  your  lungs  beats  against  two  flat 
muscles,  stretched  like  strings  across  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  and 
causes  them  to  vibrate.  This  vibration  makes  sound.  Put  one  end 
of  a  thread  between  your  teeth,  hold  the  other  end  of  it  in  your 
fingers,  draw  it  tight  and  strike  it,  and  you  will  understand  how 
voice  is  made.  If  the  voice  thus  produced  comes  out  through  the 
open  mouth,  a  class  of  sounds  is  formed  which  we  call  vowel  sounds. 

But,  if  the  voice  is  held  back  by  your  palate,  tongue,  teeth,  or  lips, 
one  kind  of  consonant  sounds 1  is  made.  If  the  breath  is  driven  out 
without  voice,  and  is  held  back  by  these  same  parts  of  the  mouth, 
the  other  kind  of  consonant  sounds 2  is  formed. 

1  Called  respectively  sonants  and  surds.  We  suggest  that  you  have 
the  pupils  give  the  sounds  of  the  vowel  a  in  ale,  care,  am,  arm,  ask,  and 


12  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


The  teacher  and  pupils  should  practice  on  these  sounds  till  the  three 
kinds  can  easily  be  distinguished. 

You  are  now  prepared  to  understand  what  I  mean  when  I  say 
that  the  vowels  are  the  letters  which  stand  for  the  open  sounds 
of  the  voice,  and  that  the  consonants  are  the  letters  which  stand 
for  the  sounds  made  by  the  obstructed  voice  and  the  obstructed 
breath. 

The  teacher  can  here  profitably  spend  a  few  minutes  in  showing 
how  ideas  may  be  communicated  by  Natural  Language,  the  language 
of  sighs,  groans,  gestures  of  the  hands,  attitudes  of  the  body,  expies- 
sions  of  the  face,  tones  of  the  voice,  etc.  He  can  show  that,  in  con- 
versation, we  sometimes  couple  this  Natural  Language  of  tone  and 
gesture  with  our  language  of  words  in  order  to  make  a  stronger 
impression.  Let  the  pupil  be  told  that,  if  the  passage  contain  feel- 
ing, he  should  do  the  same  in  Reading  and  Declaiming. 

Let  the  following  definitions  be  learned,  and  given  at  the  next  recitation. 

Definition.  —  Verbal  language,  or  language  proper,  consists 
of  the  spoken  and  written  words  used  to  communicate  ideas 
and  thoughts. 

Definition.  —  English  grammar  is  the  science  which  teaches 
the  forms,  uses,  and  relations  of  the  words  of  the  English 
language. 

all ;  the  sounds  of  e  in  ye,  end,  and  fern  ;  of  i  in  ice  and  ill ;  of  o  in  old, 
orb,  and  odd;  and  of  u  in  use,  rude,  full,  up,  and  urn.  The  sounds  of 
the  sonants  b,  d,  g  in  gin,  g  in  get,  j,  1,  m,  n,  r,  s  in  is,  s  i»  vision,  v,  x 
in  Xenophon,  x  in  exact,  z  in  zero,  and  z  in  seizure ;  and  the  sounds  of 
the  surds,  c  in  cent,  c  in  cat,  f,  h,  k,  p,  q,  s,  s  in  sure,  t,  and  x. 
in  wax. 


A  Talk  on  Languaj 


LESSON  3. 


Let  the  pupils  be  required  to  tell  what  they  learned  in  the  previous 
Lessons. 

Teacher.  —  When  I  pronounce  the  two  words  star  and  bud,  thus  : 
star  bud,  how  many  ideas,  or  mental  pictures,  do  I  call  up  to  you  ? 

Pupil.  —  Two. 

T.  —  Do  you  see  any  connection  between  these  ideas  I 

P.  —  No. 

T.  —  When  I  utter  the  two  words  bud  and  swelling  thus :  bud 
swelling,  do  you  see  any  connection  in  the  ideas  they  stand  for? 

P.  —  Yes,  I  imagine  that  I  see  a  bud  expanding,  or  growing 
larger. 

T.  —  I  will  connect  two  words  more  closely,  so  as  to  express  a 
thought :  "Buds  sivell."  A  thought  has  been  formed  in  my  mind 
when  I  say,  "Buds  swell" ;  and  these  two  words,  by  which  some- 
thing is  said  of  something  else,  express  that  thought,  and  make  what 
wTe  call  a  sentence.  In  the  former  expression,  bud  swelling,  it  is 
assumed,  or  taken  for  granted,  that  buds  perform  the  act;  in  the 
latter,  the  swelling  is  asserted  as  a  fact. 

Leaves  falling.  Do  these  two  words  express  two  ideas  merely 
associated,  or  do  they  express  a  thought  ? 

P.  -T-  They  express  ideas  merely  associated. 

T.  —  "Leaves  fall."     What  do  these  two  words  express  ? 

P.  —  A  thought. 

T.  — Why? 

P. —  Because,  in  these  words,  there  is  something  said  or  asserted  of 
leaves. 

T. — When  I  say,  "Falling  leaves  rustle,"  does  falling  tell  what  is 
thought  of  leaves  ? 

P.— No. 


14 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


T.  —  What  does  falling  do  ? 

P.  —  It  tells  the  kind  of  leaves  you  are  thinking  and  speaking  of. 
T.  —  What  word  does  tell  what  is  thought  of  leaves  ? 
P.  —  Rustle. 

T.  —  You  see  then  that  in  the  thought  there  are  two  parts ;  some- 
thing of  which  we  think,  and  that  which  we  think  about  it. 
Let  the  pupils  give  other  examples. 


LESSON   4. 
Commit  to  memory  all  definitions. 

Definition.  —  A  Sentence1  is  the  expression  of  a  thought  in 
words. 

Which  of  the  following  expressions  contain  words  that 
have  no  connection,  which  contain  words  merely  associ- 
ated, and  which  are  sentences  ? 


1.  Flowers  bloom. 

2.  Ice  melts. 

3.  Bloom  ice. 

4.  Grass  grows. 

5.  Brooks  babble. 

6.  Babbling  brooks. 

7.  Grass  soar. 

8.  Doors  open. 

9.  Open  doors. 

10.  Cows  graze. 

11.  Curling  smoke. 


12.  Sugar  graze. 

13.  Dew  sparkles. 

14.  Hissing  serpents. 

15.  Smoke  curls. 

16.  Serpents  hiss. 

17.  Smoke  curling. 

18.  Serpents  sparkles. 

19.  Melting  babble. 

20.  Eagles  soar. 

21.  Birds  chirping. 

22.  Bird  are  chirping. 


23.  Birds  chirp. 

24.  Gentle  cows. 

25.  Eagles  are  soaring. 

26.  Bees  ice. 

27.  Working  bees. 

28.  Bees  work. 

29.  Crawling  serpents. 

30.  Landscape  piano. 

31.  Serpents  crawl. 

32.  Eagles  clock. 

33.  Serpents  crawling. 


1  Or,  if  preferred,  A  Sentence  is  a  group  of  words  expressing  a  thought. 


Analysis.  15 

LESSON    5. 
REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

Illustrate,  by  the  use  of  a,  b,  and  p,  the  difference  between  the 
sounds  of  letters  and  their  names.  Letters  are  the  signs  of  what  ? 
What  is  an  idea  %  A  spoken  word  is  the  sign  of  what  1  A  written 
word  is  the  sign  of  what  ?  How  do  they  differ  I  To  what  four  differ- 
ent things  did  we  call  attention  in  Lesson  1  ? 

How  is  voice  made  ?  How  are  vowel  sounds  made  1  How  are  the 
two  kinds  of  consonant  sounds  made?  What  are  vowels'?  Name 
them.  What  are  consonants  ?  What  is  language  proper  ?  What  do 
you  understand  by  natural  language  1     What  is  English  grammar  ? 

What  three  kinds  of  expressions  are  spoken  of  in  Lessons  3  and  4  ? 
Give  examples  of  each.     What  is  a  sentence  ? 


LESSON    6. 
ANALYSIS. 

On  the  following  sentences,  let  the  pupils  be  exercised 
according  to  the  model. 

Model.  —  Intemperance  degrades.  Why  is  this  a  sentence  ? 
Ans.  —  It  expresses  a  thought.  Of  what  is  something  thought? 
Ans.  —  Intemperance.  Which  word  tells  what  is  thought?  Ans.— 
Degrades. 

1.  Magnets  attract.  5.  Sunbeams  dance.         9.  Grass  withers. 

2.  Horses  neigh.  6.  Heat  expands.  10.  Sailors  climb. 

3.  Frogs  leap.  7.  Sunlight  gleams.  11.  Rabbits  burrow. 

4.  Cold  contracts.  8.  Banners  wave.  12.  Spring  advances. 

You  see  that  in  these  sentences  there  are  two  parts. 
The  parts  are  the  Subject  and  the  Predicate. 


16 


Craded  Lessons  in  English. 


Definition.  —  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  names  that  of  which 
something  is  thought. 

Definition  — The  Predicate  of  a  sentence  tells  what  is 
thought. 

Definition.  —  The  Analysis  of  a  sentence  is  the  separation 
of  it  into  its  parts. 

Analyze,  according  to  the  model,  the  following  sentences. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  Stais  twinkle.  This  is  a  sentence,  because  it 
expresses  a  thought.  Stars  is  the  subject,  because  it  names  that  of 
which  something  is  thought ;  twinkle  is  the  predicate,  because  it  tells 
what  is  thought. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  After  the  pupils  become  familiar  with  the  defini- 
tions, the  "Models"  may  be  varied,  and  some  of  the  reasons  may  be 
made  specific ;  as,  "  Plants  names  the  things  we  tell  about ;  droop  tells 
what  plants  do,"  etc. 

Guard  against  needless  repetition. 

1.  Plants  droop.  5.  Rain  falls.  9.  Boats  capsize. 

2.  Books  help.  6.  Time  flies.  10.  Water  flows. 

3.  Clouds  float.  7.  Rowdies  fight.  11.  Students  leam. 

4.  Exercise  strengthens.  8.  Bread  nourishes.  12.  Horses  gallop. 


LESSON  7. 
ANALYSIS   AND  THE    DIAGRAM. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — I  will  draw  on  the  board  a 
heavy,  or  shaded,  line,  and  divide  it  into  two  parts,  thus: 


Analysis  and  the  Diagram. 


17 


We  will  consider  the  first  part  as  the  sign  of  the  subject 
of  a  sentence,  and  the  second  part  as  the  sign  of  the  predi- 
cate of  a  sentence. 

Now,  if  I  write  a  word  over  the  first  line,  thus  —  you 
will  understand  that  that  word  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 
If  I  write  a  word  over  the  second  line,  thus  —  you  will 
understand  that  that  word  is  the  predicate  of  a  sentence. 

Planets       \      revolve. 


The  class  can  see  by  this  that  "  Planets  revolve "  is  a 
sentence,  that  planets  is  the  subject,  and  that  revolve  is  the 
predicate. 

Such  pictures,  made  up  of  straight  lines,  we  call  Dia- 
grams.   

Definition.  —  A  Diagram  is  a  picture  of  the  offices  and  rela- 
tions of  the  different  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Analyze  and  diagram  the  following  sentences :  — 


1.  Waves  dash. 

2.  Kings  reign. 

3.  Fruit  ripens. 

4.  Stars  shine. 

5.  Steel  tarnishes. 

6.  Insects  buzz. 

7.  Paul  preached. 

8.  Poets  sing. 


9.  Nero  fiddled.  17. 

10.  Larks  sing.  18. 

11.  Water  ripples.  19. 

12.  Lambs  frisk.  20. 

13.  Lions  roar.  21. 

14.  Tigers  growl.  22. 

15.  Breezes  sigh.  23. 

16.  Carthage  fell.  24. 


Morning  dawns. 
Showers  descended. 
Diamonds  sparkle. 
Alexander  conquered. 
Jupiter  thunders. 
Columbus  sailed. 
Grammarians  differ. 
Cornwallis  surrendered. 


In  Lessons  6  and  7,  you  notice  (1)  that  such  subjects  as 
time,  Nero,  and  morning,  each  denoting  only  one  person  or 


18  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


thing,  do  not  add  the  s-ending  ;  and  (2)  that  the  predicates 
of  such  subjects  do  add  it.  Such  subjects  as  hooks,  kings, 
and  lions,  (3)  each  denoting  more  than  one,  add  the  s-end- 
ing; and  (4)  the  predicates  of  such  subjects  do  not  add 
it. 

This  use  of  the  simple  form  of  the  predicate  with  the 
s-form  of  the  subject,  and  of  the  s-form  of  the  predicate 
with  the  simple  form  of  the  subject,  is  called  the  agreement 
of  the  predicate  with  its  subject. 

Note,  however,  that,  as  in  7, 16,  and  22  above,  the  s-form 
of  the  predicate  is  not  used  in  telling  what  a  person  or 
thing  did — only  in  telling  what  it  does  now. 


"  LESSON    8. 
COMPOSITION. 

You  have  now  learned  to  analyze  sentences,  that  is,  to 
separate  them  into  their  parts.  You  must  next  learn  to 
put  these  parts  together,  that  is,  to  build  sentences.  If 
the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  its  parts  is  analysis,  the 
putting  of  its  parts  together  is  synthesis,  construction,  or 
composition. 

We  will  find  one  part,  and  you  must  find  the  other  and 
do  the  building. 

To  the  Teacher. — Let  some  of  the  pupils  write  their  sentences  on 
the  board  while  others  are  reading  theirs.  Then  let  the  work  on  the 
board  be  corrected. 


Composition.  19 


Correct  any  expression  that  does  not  make  good  sense,  or  that  asserts 
something  not  strictly  true  ;  for  the  pupil  should  early  be  taught  to  think 
accurately,  as  well  as  to  write  and  speak  grammatically. 

Correct  all  mistakes  in  spelling,  and  in  the  use  of  capital  letters  and 
the  period. 

Insist  on  neatness.     Collect  the  papers  before  the  recitation  closes. 

Capital  Letter — Rule.  —  The  first  word  of  every  sentence 
must  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Period  —  Rule.  —  A  period  must  be  placed  after  every  sen- 
tence that  simply  affirms,  denies,  or  expresses  a  command. 

Construct  sentences  by  supplying  a  subject  to  each  of 
the  following  predicates:  — 

,  Ask  yourself  the  question,  What  swim,  sink,  hunt,  etc.  ? 
The  proper  answers  will  be  the  subjects  required. 

1 . swim.      7. climb.  1 3. flashes.    1 9. expand. 

2. sinks.      8. creep.  14. nutters.  20. jump. 

3. hunt.       9. run.      15. paddle.    21. hop. 

4. skate.  10. walk.   16. toil.         22. bellow. 

5. jingle.  11. snort.  17. terrifies.  23. burns. 

6. decay.  1 2. kick.    1 8. rages.       24. evaporates. 

This  exercise  may  profitably  be  extended  by  requiring 
the  pupils  to  supply  several  subjects  to  each  predicate. 

Add  the  s-ending  to  the  predicates  that  are  without  it, 
and  make  the  needed  change  in  your  subjects ;  drop  the 
s-ending  from  the  predicates  that  have  it,  and  make  the 
needed  change  in  your  subjects. 


20 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON    9. 
COMPOSITION—  Continued. 

Construct  sentences  by  supplying  a  predicate  to  each  of 
the  following  subjects:  — 

Ask  yourself  the  question,  Artists,  sailors,  tides,  etc.  do 
what  ?  The  proper  answers  will  be  the  predicates  re- 
quired. 


1.  Artists  - 

2.  Sailors  - 

3.  Tides  — 

4.  Whales  - 


5.  Gentlemen  ■ 

6.  Swine 

7.  Clouds 

8.  Girls . 

9.  Fruit . 

10.  Powder 

11.  Hail . 

12.  Foxes 


13.  Water 

14.  Frost 

15.  Man . 

16.  Blood 

17.  Kings 

18.  Lilies 

19.  Roses 

20.  Wheels  — 

21.  Waves 

22.  Dew- . 

23.  Boys 

24.  Volcanoes  - 


25.  Storms 

26.  Politicians  - 

27.  Serpents  — 

28.  Chimneys  - 

29.  Owls . 

30.  Rivers 

31.  Nations  — 

32.  Indians  — 

33.  Grain 

34.  Rogues 

35.  Rome 

36.  Briers 


This  exercise  may  be  extended  by  requiring  the  pupils 
to  supply  several  predicates  to  each  subject. 

Add  or  drop  the  s-ending,  and  make  the  needed  change 
in  the  predicates  that  they  may  agree. 

You  cannot  become  too  familiar  with  the  agreement  of 
predicate  with  subject,  and  you  cannot  become  familiar 
with  it  too  early. 


Analysis.  21 

LESSON  10. 
REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

Of  what  two  parts  does  a  sentence  consist  ?  What  is  the  subject 
of  a  sentence1?  What  is  the  predicate  of  a  sentence?  What  is  the 
analysis  of  a  sentence  ?     What  is  synthesis,  or  composition  ? 

What  is  a  diagram  ?  What  rule  for  the  use  of  capital  letters  have 
you  learned  ?     What  rule  for  the  period ! 

Impromptu  Exercise. 

Let  the  pupils  "  choose  sides,"  as  in  a  spelling  match.  Let  the 
teacher  select  predicates  from  Lesson  8,  and  give  them  alternately  to 
the  pupils  thus  arranged.  The  first  pupil  prefixes  to  his  word  what-, 
ever  suitable  subjects  he  can  think  of,  the  teacher  judging  of  their 
fitness  and  keeping  the  count.  This  pupil  now  rises  and  remains 
standing  until  some  one  else,  on  his  side  or  the  other,  shall  have  pre- 
fixed to  his  word  a  greater  number  of  apt  subjects.  The  struggle  is 
to  see  who  shall  be  standing  at  the  close  of  the  match,  and  which 
side  shall  have  furnished  the  greater  number  of  subjects.  The  exer- 
cise may  be  continued  with  the  subjects  of  Lesson  9.  The  pupils  are 
limited  to  the  same  time  —  one  or  two  minutes. 


LESSON  11. 
ANALYSIS. 


The  predicate  sometimes  contains  more  than  one  word. 

Analyze  and  diagram  according  to  the  model :  — 
Model.  —  Socrates  ivas  poisoned. 

Socrates        \     was  poisoned 


22 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  sentence,  because  it  expresses  a  thought. 

Socrates  is  the  subject,  because ;  was  poisoned  is  the  predicate, 

because * . 


1.  Napoleon  was  banished. 

2.  Andre'  was  captured. 

3.  Money  is  circulated. 

4.  Columbus  was  imprisoned 

5.  Acorns  are  sprouting. 

6.  Bells  are  tolled. 

7.  Summer  has  come. 

8.  Sentences  may  be  analyzed. 

9.  Clouds  are  reddening. 

10.  Air  may  be  weighed. 

11.  Jehovah  shall  reign. 

12.  Corn  is  planted. 

13.  Grammarians  will  differ. 


14.  Snow  is  falling. 

15.  Leaves  are  rustling. 

16.  Children  will  prattle. 

17.  Crickets  are  chirping. 

18.  Eclipses  have  been  foretold. 

19.  Storms  may  abate. 

20.  Deception  may  have  been  prac- 

ticed. 

21.  Esau  was  hated. 

22.  Treason  should  have  been  pun- 

ished. 

23.  Bees  are  humming. 

24.  Sodom  might  have  been  spared. 


Notice  that  is,  was,  has,  and  also  does,  are  used  with  sub- 
jects denoting  but  one  ;  and  that  are,  were,  have,  and  also 
do,  are  used  with  subjects  denoting  more  than  one. 

Drop  the  s-ending  from  the  subjects  of  5,  6,  9, 15, 17, 18, 
and  23,  and  change  are  and  have,  that  predicate  and  sub- 
ject may  agree. 

Exchange  the  subjects  of  1,  2,  3,  4,  7,  12,  14,  and  21, 
for  others  with  s-ending,  and  change  was,  is,  and  has,  that 
predicates  may  agree  with  subjects. 
_ f 

1  The  word  because  —  suggesting  a  reason  —  should  be  dropped  from 
these  "Models"  whenever  it  may  lead  to  mere  mechanical  repetition. 
Avoid  deadly  routine  at  whatever  cost. 


Composition.  23 

LESSON  12. 
COMPOSITION. 

Prefix  the  little  helping  words  in  the  second  column  to 
such  of  the  more  important  words  in  the  third  column  as 
with  them  will  make  complete  predicates,  and  join  these 
predicates  to  all  subjects  in  the  first  column  with  which 
they  will  unite  and  make  good  sense. 


1 

2 

3 

Burgoyne 

are 

woven. 

Henry  Hudson 

was 

defeated. 

Sparrows 

can  be 

condensed. 

Comets 

is 

inhaled. 

Time 

have  been 

Worn. 

Turbans 

may  be 

slacked. 

Lime 

has  been 

wasted. 

Steam 

could  have  been 

seen. 

Air 

must  have  been 

deceived. 

Carpets 

were 

quarreling. 

LESSON  13. 

Point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  each  sentence 
in  Lessons  28,  31,  34. 

Look  first  for  the  word  that  asserts,  and  then,  by  put- 
ting who  or  what  before  this  predicate,  the  subject  may 
easily  be  found. 


24  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Read  aloud  in  the  class  the  sentences  of  Lesson  11  with 
the  helping  words  is,  was,  may,  are,  should,  etc.  before 
their  subjects.  Read  also  the  first  nine  sentences  of 
Lesson  31  with  does  or  did  —  as  the  case  requires  —  before 
the  subjects,  making  the  needed  changes  in  the  predicates. 

The  sentences  thus  read  become  interrogative,  ask  ques- 
tions; and,  if  written,  the  interrogation  point  would  be 
used.     See  Lesson  63. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Most  violations  of  the  rules  of  agreement  come 
from  a  failure  to  recognize  the  relation  of  subject  and  predicate  when 
these  parts  are  transposed  or  are  separated  by  other  words.  Such  con- 
structions should  therefore  receive  special  attention. 

Introduce  the  class  to  the  Parts  of  Speech  before  the  close  of  this  reci- 
tation.    See  "  Hints  for  Oral  Instruction." 


LESSON  14. 
CLASSES   OF   WORDS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  By  the  assistance  of  the 
few  hints  here  given,  the  ingenious  teacher  may  render 
this  usually  dry  subject  interesting  and  attractive.  By 
questioning  the  pupil  as  to  what  he  has  seen  and  heard, 
his  interest  may  be  excited  and  his  curiosity  awakened. 

Suppose  that  we  make  an  imaginary  excursion  to  some 
field  or  grove,  where  we  may  study  the  habits,  the  plum- 
age, and  the  songs  of  the  birds. 

If  we  attempt  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  every  little 


Classes  of  Words.  25 


feathered  singer  we  meet,  we  shall  never  get  to  the  end 
of  our  pleasant  task ;  but  we  find  that  some  resemble  one 
another  in  size,  shape,  color,  habits,  and  song.  We  asso- 
ciate these  together  and  call  them  sparrows. 

We  find  others  differing  essentially  from  the  spar- 
rows, but  resembling  one  another.  These  we  call  rob- 
ins.     Others,  for  like  reasons,  we  call  bobolinks. 

We  thus  find  that,  although  we  cannot  become 
acquainted  with  each  individual  bird,  they  all  belong  to 
a  few  classes,  with  which  we  may  soon  become  familiar. 

It  is  so  with  the  words  of  our  language.  There  are 
many  thousands  of  them,  and  they  all  belong  to  eight 
classes,  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

We  classify  birds  according  to  their  form,  color,  etc., 
but  Ave  group  words  into  classes,  called  Parts  of  Speech, 
with  respect  to  their  use  in  the  sentence. 

We  find  that  many  words  are  names.  These  we  put 
into  one  class  and  call  them  Nouns. 

Each  pupil  may  give  the  name  of  something  in  the 
rocm ;  tha  name  of  a  distinguished  person ;  a  name  that 
may  bo  applied  to  a  class  of  persons;  the  name  of  an 
animal ;  the  name  of  a  place ;  the  name  of  a  river ;  the 
name  of  a  mountain ;  the  name  of  something  which  we 
cannot  see  or  touch,  but  of  which  we  can  think ;  as,  beauty, 
mind. 

Remind  the  pupils  frequently  that  these  names  are  all 
nouns. 


26  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Nouns. 
,    Definition. — A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything. 

Write  in  columns,  headed  nouns,  the  names  of  domestic 
animals,  of  garden  vegetables,  of  flowers,  of  trees,  of 
articles  sold  in  a  dry -goods  store,  and  of  things  that  can- 
not be  seen  or  touched ;  as,  virtue,  time,  life. 

Write  and  arrange,  according  to  the  following  model, 

the  names  of  things  that  can  float,  fly,  walk,  work,  sit,  or 

sing :  — 

Nouns. 

+  Cork 
Clouds 
Model. — Wood     •  floats  or  float. 
Ships 
Boys 

Such  expressions  as  "Cork  floats"  are  sentences,  and  the 
nouns  cork,  ships,  etc.  are  the  subjects.  You  will  find  that 
every  subject  is  a  noun  or  some  word  or  words  used  for  a 
noun. 

Be  prepared  to  analyze  and  parse  the  sentences  which 
you  have  made.  Naming  the  class  to  which  a  word  be- 
longs is  the  first  step  in  parsing. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  sentence,  because ;  cork  is  the 

subject,  because ;  floats  is  the  predicate,  because . 

Parsing.  —  Cork  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  thing — 
the  bark  of  a  tree. 


Verbs.  27 

LESSON  15. 

Select  and  write  all  the  nouns  in  the  sentences  given  in 
Lessons  28,  31,  34. 

Tell  why  they  are  nouns. 

In  writing  the  nouns,  observe  the  following  rule :  — 

Capital  Letter — Rule. — Every  proper  or  individual  name 
must  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

With  respect  to  what  do  we  classify  words  (Lesson  14)?  What 
are  such  classes  called !  Can  you  illustrate  this  classification  1  What 
are  all  names  ?  What  is  a  noun  1  What  is  the  first  step  in  parsing  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  writing  proper  names  1 


LESSON    16. 
VERBS. 


Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — We  introduce  you  now  to 
another  class  of  words.  You  have  learned  that  one  very 
large  class  consists  of  names  of  things.  There  is  another 
very  important  class  used  to  tell  what  these  things  do,  or 
used  to  express  their  existence. 

When  I  say,  "Plants  grow"  is  grow  the  name  of  any- 
thing? P.— No.  T.— What  does  it  do?  P.— It  tells 
what  plants  do.     It  expresses  action. 

T.  — When  I  say,  "  God  is"  what  does  is  express  ?  P. — 
It  expresses  existence,  or  being. 


28  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


T. — When  I  say,  "  George  sleeps"  sleeps  expresses  being 
and  something  more;  it  tells  the  condition,  or  state,  in 
which  George  is,  or  exists,  that  is,  it  expresses  state  of 
being. 

All  the  words  that  assert  action,  being,  or  state  of  being 
we  call  Verbs. 

Let  the  teacher  write  nouns  on  the  board,  and  require 
the  pupils  to  give  all  the  words  of  which  they  can  think, 
telling  what  the  things  named  can  do.  They  may  be 
arranged  thus :  — 

Noun,     Verbs. 
'  grow, 

droop,  Each  pupil  may  give  a  verb  that  expresses  an 

Plants  -I  decay,  action  of  the  body ;  as,  iveep,  sing ;  an  action  of 

flourish,  the  mind  ;  as,  study,  love;    one  that  expresses 

revive.  being  or  state * of  being. 

Definition. — A  Verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  action,  being, 
or  state  of  being. 

The  office  of  the  verb  in  all  its  forms  except  two  (the 
participle  and  the  infinitive,  see  Lessons  48  and  49)  is  to 
assert.  This  it  does  whether  the  sentence  affirms,  denies, 
or  asks  a  question. 

To  the  Teacher. — In  the  exercises  of  this  and  the  next  two  Lessons, 
let  the  pupils  note  the  agreement  of  the  verb  with  its  subject. 

Supply  to  each  of  the  following  nouns  as  many  appro- 
priate verbs  as  you  can  think  of.  Let  some  express  being 
or  state  of  being :  — 


Verbs. 


29 


Water 
Vines  - 


Wind  — 
Farmers 


Pens  - 
Trees 


Parrots  — 
Ministers 


One  verb  may  consist  of  two,  three,  or  four  words ;  as, 
is  singing,  will  be  sung,  might  have  been  sung. 

Form  verbs  by  combining  the  words  in  columns  2  and 
3,  and  add  these  verbs  to  all  the  nouns  in  column  1  with 
which  they  appropriately  combine  :  — 


1 

2 

3 

Laws 

has  been 

published. 

Clouds 

have  been 

paid. 

Food 

will  be 

restored. 

Health 

should  have  been 

preserved. 

Taxes 

may  be 

collected. 

Books 

are 

obeyed. 

The  examples  you  have  written  are  sentences;  the 
nouns  are  subjects,  and  the  verbs  are  predicates. 

As  verbs  are  the  only  words  that  assert,  every  predicate 
must  be  a  verb  or  must  contain  a  verb. 

Analyze  and  parse  five  of  the  sentences  you  have 
written. 

Model.  — Laws  are  obeyed.    Diagram  and  analyze  as  in  Lesson  1 1 . 

Parsing. — Laws  is  a  noun,  because ;  are  obeyed  is  a  verb, 

because  it  asserts  action. 


LESSON    17. 


Select  and  write  all  the  verbs  in  the  sentences  given  in 
Lessons  28,  31,  34,  and  tell  why  they  are  verbs. 


30  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON   18. 

COMPOSITION. 


Out  of  the  following  nouns  and  verbs,  build  as  many 
sentences  as  possible,  taking  care  that  every  one  makes 
good  sense  and  expresses  a  truth :  — 

Poems,  was  conquered,  lambs,  rebellion,  stars,  forests,  shone,  were 
seen,  were  written,  treason,  patriots,  meteors,  fought,  were  discovered, 
frisk,  Cain,  have  fallen,  fled,  stream,  have  crumbled,  day,  ages,  deer, 
are  flickering,  are  bounding,  gleamed,  voices,  lamps,  rays,  were  heard, 
are  gathering,  time,  death,  friends,  is  coming,  will  come. 


LESSON    19. 
PRONOUNS. 


Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — We  propose  to  introduce 
you  now  to  the  third  part  of  speech.  T.  —  If  I  should  ask 
who  whispered,  and  some  boy  should  promptly  confess, 
what  would  he  say?  P.  —  "JT  whispered."  T. — Would 
he  mention  his  own  name?  P.  —  No.  T.  —  What  word 
would  he  use  instead  ?     P. — L 

T.  —  Suppose  that  I  had  spoken  to  that  boy  and  had 
accused  him  of  whispering,  how  should  I  have  addressed 
him  without  mentioning  his  name  ?  P.  — "  You  whispered." 
T.  —  What  word  would  be  used  instead  of  the  name  of  the 
boy  to  whom  I  spoke  ?     P.  —  You. 

T.  —  Suppose  that,  without  using  his  name,  I  had  told 


Pronouns.  31 


you  what  he  did,  what  should  I  have  said?  P.  —  "He 
whispered."  T. — What  word  would  have  been  used  in- 
stead of  the  name  of  the  boy  of  whom  I  spoke  ?     P.  —  He. 

Repeat  these  questions,  supposing  the  pupil  to  be  a 
girl. 

T. — If  I  should  tell  that  boy  to  close  his  book  when 
his  book  was  already  closed,  what  would  he  say  without 
mentioning  the  word  booh?     P. — " It  is  closed." 

T. — If  I  should  accuse  several  of  you  of  whispering, 
and  one  should  speak  for  himself  and  for  those  whispering 
with  him,  what  would  he  say  ?     P.  — "  We  whispered." 

T.  —  Suppose  that  a  boy  should  inform  me  that  all  of 
the  boys  on  that  seat  had  whispered,  what  would  he  say  ? 
P.  — "  They  whispered." 

I,  you,  he,  she,  it,' we,  and  they  are  not  names,  but  they 
are  used  instead  of  names.    We  call  such  words  Pronouns. 

Definition.  —  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun. 

Capital  Letters  —  Rule.  —  The  words  I  and  0  should  be 
written  in  capital  letters. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Model.  —  You  will  be  rewarded. 

Oral  Analysis. —  This  is  a  sentence,  because ;  you  is  the 

subject,  because ;   will  be  rewarded  is  the  predicate,  because 


Parsing.  —  You  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  stands  for  the  name  of 
the  person  spoken  to ;  will  be  rewarded  is  a  verb,  because . 


32  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Analyze  these  sentences,  and  parse  the  words  :  — 

1.  We  think.  6.  It  has  been  decided, 

2.  She  prattles.  7.  He  was  punished. 

3.  We  have  recited.  8.  They  are  conquered. 

4.  I  study.  9.  Thou  art  adored. 

5.  You  have  been  seen. 

You  see  that,  without  changing  the  verb- form,  J,  you, 
and  they  may  take  the  place  of  we  in  1  and  3  above :  that 
you,  we,  and  they  may  take  the  place  of  Jin  4 ;  that  i",  weS 
and  they  may  take  the  place  of  you  in  5 ;  and  that  /,  ive* 
and  you  may  take  the  place  of  they  in  such  a  sentence  as 
"They  have  or  had  conquered."  In  other  words,  the  pro- 
nouns Z,  we,  you,  and  they  require  the  same  verb-form. 

An  exception  is  I  with  are  and  were  —  forms  of  the 
verb  be.  We  may  say,  "We^  you,  and  they  are  or  were 
conquered "  ;  but,  using  /,  we  must  say,  "  I  am  or  ivas 
conquered." 

Thou,  as  in  9,  is  rare ;  you  takes  its  place.  You  may 
mean  one  or  more  than  one,  but  the  verb  always  agrees 
with  it  as  if  it  meant  more  than  one. 

He,  she,  and  it  require  is  and  was  and  the  s-form  of 
jthe  verb  seen  above  in  has  and  prattles.  I  cannot  be 
the  subject  of  is  or  of  an  s-form. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Over  and  again,  till  the  ear  is  accustomed  to 
the  right  sound,  have  your  pupils  repeat  aloud  I  with  the  agreeing 
verb-forms  am  and  was ;  we,  you,  and  they  with  are  and  were ;  I,  we, 
you,  and  they  with  the  simple  verb-forms  have,  go,  think,  study,  come, 
etc. ;   and  he,  she,  and  it  with  is,  was,  and  the  s-forms  has,  thinks,  goes, 


V     ■//"'?/  ♦    *°^  *? 

Modified  Subject.         V  ^      JJ  /  f/h  33       '^ 

studies,  etc.      Guard  the  pupils  especially  against  the  asmwPy  er%*s  ot*l(ji 
was  for  were,  and  don'£  for  doesn't.  ^^^L  *     PA  I  TP 

Compose  nine  similar  sentences,  using  a  pronoun  for 
the  subject  of  each,  and  diagram  them. 

To  the  Teacher. — Before  this  recitation  closes,  explain  "Modified 
Subject."     See  "Hints  for  Oral  Instruction." 


LESSON    20. 
MODIFIED    SUBJECT. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — You  have  already  learned 
that  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  a  verb  sometimes  make  a 
complete  sentence  ;  but  we  are  about  to  show  you  that 
they  are  often  used  as  the  foundation  only  of  a  sentence, 
which  is  completed  by  adding  other  parts. 

I  hold  in  my  hand  several  pieces  of  metal,  with  letters 
and  other  characters  stamped  on  them.  What  do  you 
say  I  have  in  my  hand  ?  P.  —  Money.  T.  —  Yes.  What 
other  word  can  you  use  ?  P.  —  Coin.  T.  —  Yes.  I  will 
write  on  the  board  this  sentence  :  "  Coin  is  stamped." 

Coin  is  a  general  or  class  name  for  all  such  pieces  of 
metal.  I  will  write  the  word  the  before  this  sentence  : 
"The  coin  is  stamped."  I  have  now  made  an  assertion 
about  one  particular  coin,  so  the  meaning  of  the  subject 
is  limited  by  joining  the  word  the. 

I  can  limit  the  meaning  of  the  subject  by  putting  the 
word  a  before  it.     The  assertion  is  now  about  one  coin, 


34  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


but  no  particular  one.  I  point  to  the  piece  near  me  and 
say,  "  This  coin  is  stamped."  I  point  to  the  one  farther 
from  me  and  say,  "  That  coin  is  stamped." 

When  words  are  joined  to  the  subject  to  limit  its  mean- 
ing, we  say  that  the  subject  is  modified. 

The  words  the,  a,  this,  and  that  modify  the  subject  by 
limiting  the  word  to  one  coin,  or  to  one  particular  coin. 

We  can  modify  the  subject  by  joining  some  word  which 
will  tell  what  kind  of  coin  is  meant. 

Here  is  a  coin  dated  19 — .  We  can  say,  "  The  new  coin 
is  stamped."  Here  the  word  new  tells  what  kind  of  coin 
is  meant.  What  other  words  can  I  use  to  modify  coin? 
P.  —  Beautiful,  bright,  round,  silver,  T.  —  These  words 
beautiful,  bright,  round,  and  silver  modify  the  subject  by 
telling  the  qualities  of  the  coin. 

We  call  the  words  the,  beautiful,  etc.  Modifiers. 

Definition.  —  A  Modifier  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  joined 
to  some  part  of  the  sentence  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning. 

The  Subject  with  its  Modifiers,  is  called  the  Modified 

Subject. 

Analysis. 

Analyze  and  diagram  the  following  sentences :  — 
Model.  —  The  genial  summer  days  have  come, 
days  have  come 


Modified  Subject.  35 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  The  lighter  lines,  joined  to  the 
subject  line,  stand  for  the  modifiers,  the  less  important  parts. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  sentence,  because ;  clays  is  the 

subject,  because ;  have  come  is  the  predicate,  because ; 

The,  genial,  and  summer  are  modifiers  of  the  subject,  because  they 
are  words  joined  to  the  subject  to  modify  its  meaning.  The  genial 
summer  days  is  the  modified  subject. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  To  excite  thought  and  guard  against  mere  routine, 
pupils  may,  so  far  as  they  are  able,  make  the  reasons  specific.  For  ex- 
ample, "  The  points  out  some  particular  clouds,  dark  tells  their  color,"  etc. 

Here  and  elsewhere  the  teacher  must  determine  how  far  it  is  profitable 
to  follow  "  Models."  There  is  great  danger  of  wasting  time  in  repeating 
forms  that  require  no  mental  effort. 

1.  The  angry  wind  is  howling. 

2.  The  dead  leaves  fall. 

3.  The  dark  clouds  lower. 

4.  The  tall  elm  bends. 
*5.  All  men  must  die. 

6.  The  lusty  bellows  roared. 

7.  A  boding  silence  reigned. 

8.  Little  Arthur  was  murdered. 

9.  The  mighty  oak  was  uprooted. 

10.  The  fragile  violet  was  crushed. 

11.  The  beautiful  marble  statue  was  carved. 

12.  The  turbid  torrent  roared. 

13.  The  affrighted  shepherds  fled. 

14.  The  vivid  lightning  flashes. 

15.  Those  elegant  Etruscan  vases  are  broken. 

Change  the  place  of  certain  words  in  1,  5,  8,  9,  10,  11, 
and  15,  and  read  these  sentences  as  questions  —  see  Lesson 


36  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


13.  Select  from  do,  did,  and  does  —  forms  of  do  —  and 
read  4  and  14  as  questions;  do  the  same  with  2  and  3; 
and  with  6,  7,  12,  and  13. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  verb  ?  Give  examples  of  verbs  of  action.  Of  being. 
Of  state  of  being.  Of  how  many  words  may  a  verb  consist  I  Illus- 
trate. Verbs  are  the  only  words  that  do  what  ?  What  must  every 
predicate  contain  ? 

What  parts  of  speech  are  explained  in  the  preceding  Lessons'? 
Give  the  definition  of  a  pronoun.  Give  the  rule  for  writing  the 
words  Zand  0. 

Which  one  of  these  forms  of  the  verb  be  —  am,  art,  is,  was,  are, 
and  were  —  is  used  with  I  only?  Which  with  I,  he,  she,  and  it  f 
In  assertions  of  fact,  like  those  thus  far  seen,  what  four  forms  of  be 
is  J  not  the  subject  of?  (Were  in  certain  uses,  as  we  shall  hereafter 
see,  may  be  used  with  i,  he,  she,  it,  and  nouns  naming  but  one.) 
What  forms  of  be  can  he,  she,  it,  and  nouns  naming  but  one  never  be 
the  subject  of?  Only  what  forms  of  be  may  we,  you,  they,  and 
nouns  naming  more  than  one  be  the  subject  of?  Which  only  of 
these  forms  of  have  —  has,  hast,  have,  and  had  —  may  I  be  the  sub- 
ject of?  He,  she,  it,  and  nouns  naming  but  one,  be  the  subject  of? 
We,  you,  they,  and  nouns  naming  more  than  one,  be  the  subject  of? 
Not  classing  is  and  ivas  as  s -forms,  since  the  s  in  each  is  part  of  the 
root,  which  of  the  pronouns  may  be  subjects  of  the  s-form  of  verbs  ? 
Which  class  of  nouns  —  those  naming  one,  or  those  naming  more 
than  one  —  may  be  subjects  of  the  s-form?  What  is  said  of  thou  f 
What  then  may  you  say  of  art  and  hast,  above,  which  agree  with 
thou  ?  Of  the  verb-form  of  which  you  is  the  subject  ?  What  two 
very  common  errors  in  the  use  of  verb-forms  ?  How  only  can  we  guard 
against  such  errors  and  secure  agreement  of  the  verb  with  its  subject  ? 


Composition.  37 


What  is  the  foundation  on  which  every  sentence  is  built  ?  May 
the  subject  be  modified?  What  is  a  modifier?  What  is  the  modi- 
fied subject  |     Illustrate  both. 


LESSON  21. 
COMPOSITION. 


We  have  here  prepared  the  foundations  of  sentences 
which  you  are  to  complete  by  prefixing  two  or  more  suita- 
ble modifiers  to  each  subject.  Choose  and  arrange  your 
modifiers  so  as  to  make  neat,  truthful,  and  sensible 
assertions. 

Model. eminence  was  reached. 

That  lofty  eminence  was  reached. 

1. speaker  was  applauded.  6. houses  are  built. 

2. difficulties  were  overcome.         7. soldiers  perished. 

3. leaf  trembles.  8. opinions  prevailed. 

4. accident  happened.  9. leader  fell. 

5. books  should  be  read.  10. task  is  completed. 

For  other  subjects  and  predicates,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  Lessons  7 
and  11. 

Build  sentences  by  prefixing  modified  subjects  to  the 
following  predicates  :  — 

1. frolic.  4. was  caught.  7.- flourished. 

2. crawl.  5. escaped.  8. whistles. 

3. are  dashing.  6. chatter. 


38  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Build,  on  each  of  the  following  subjects,  three  sentences 
similar  to  those  in  the  model  :  — 

Model. sun . 


The  blight  sun  is  shining. 
The  glorious  sun  has  risen. 
The  unclouded  sun  is  sinking. 

1 . snow .  2. dew .  3. wind . 

4. landscape . 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Please  notice  that  the  next  Lesson  begins  with 
"  Hints  for  Oral  Instruction." 


LESSON    22. 
ADJECTIVES. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — You  are  now  prepared  to 
consider  the  fourth  part  of  speech.  The  words  that  are 
added  to  the  subject  to  modify  its  meaning  are  called 
Adjectives.  In  succeeding  Lessons  you  will  see  that 
adjectives  may  be  joined  to  nouns  that  are  used  otherwise 
than  as  subjects  of  sentences. 

Some  grammarians  have  formed  a  separate  class  of  the 
little  words  the,  and  an  or  a,  calling  them  Articles;  but 
they  may  be  classed  as  adjectives,  for  they  are  joined  to 
nouns  to  modify  their  meaning. 

I  will  write  the  word  hoys  on  the  board,  and  you  may 
name  adjectives  that  will  appropriately  modify  it.     As 


Adjectives. 


39 


you  give  them,  I  will  write  these  adjectives  in  a  column, 
thus : — 

Adjectives. 
small 
large 
white 
black 
straight 
crooked 
five 


some 
all 


-  boys. 


What  words  here  modify  boys  by  adding 
the  idea  of  size  1  What  by  adding  the  idea 
of  color  I  What  by  adding  the  idea  of  form  ? 
What  by  adding  the  idea  of  number  ? 

What  are  such  words  called?     Why? 


Let  the  teacher  name  familiar  objects  and  require  the  pupils  to  join 
appropriate  adjectives  to  the  names  till  their  stock  is  exhausted. 

Definition.  —  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Model.  —  A  fearful  storm  was  raging.     Diagram  and  analyze  as 
in  Lesson  20. 


Nouns. 
storm 


"Written  Parsing. 
Pronouns.  Adjectives.  Verbs, 


A 

fearful 


was  raging 


Oral  Parsing. — A  is  an  adjective,  because  it  is  joined  to  the  noun 

storm  to  modify  its  meaning ;  fearful  is  an  adjective,  because ; 

storm  is  a  noun,  because ;  was  raging  is  a  verb,  because . 


40  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Analyze  and  diagram  these  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  rosy  morn  advances. 

2.  The  humble  boon  was  obtained. 

3.  An  unyielding  firmness  was  displayed. 

4.  The  whole  earth  smiles. 

5.  Several  subsequent  voyages  were  made. 

6.  That  burly  mastiff  must  be  secured. 

7.  The  slender  greyhound  was  released. 

8.  The  cold  November  rain  is  falling. 

9.  That  valuable  English  watch  has  been  sold. 

10.  I  alone  have  escaped. 

11.  Both  positions  can  be  defended. 

12.  All  such  discussions  should  have  been  avoided. 

13.  That  dilapidated  old  wooden  building  has  fallen. 

What  adjectives  in  these  sentences  modify  by  expressing 
quality  ?  What  ones  modify  by  pointing  out  ?  What 
ones,  by  numbering  ? 

LESSON    23. 
COMPOSITION. 

Prefix  five  adjectives  to  each  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 
Shrubs,  wilderness,  beggar,  cattle,  cloud. 

Write  ten  sentences  with  modified  subjects,  using  in 
each  two  or  more  of  the  following  adjectives :  — 

A  an,  the,  heroic,  one,  all,  many,  every,  either,  first,  tenth,  frugal, 
great,  good,  wise,  honest,  immense,  square,  circular,  oblong,  oval,  mild, 
virtuous,  universal,  sweet,  careless,  fragrant. 


Composition. 


41 


Write  five  sentences  with  modified  subjects,  each  of 
which  shall  contain  one  of  the  following  words  as  sub- 
ject:— 

Chimney,  hay,  coach,  robber,  horizon. 

Our  knowledge  of  things  is  principally  a  knowledge  of 
their  qualities.  A  writer's  style  is  largely  affected  by  his 
choice  and  use  of  adjectives  denoting  these.  We  group  a 
few  denoting  qualities  perceived  by  the  several  senses. 
Join  appropriate  nouns  to  these :  — 


Seeing. 


scarlet 

dingy 

gaudy 

crimson 

vivid 
Hearing. 

transparent 

audible 

deafening 

discordant 

loud 

husky 
Smelling. 

melodious 

fragrant 

odorous 
Tasting. 

aromatic 

acid 

delicious 

palatable 

pungent 

insipid 
Feeling. 

luscious 

rough 

hard 

tepid 

dry 

cold 

hot 

42  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


It  would  be  easy  to  acid  to  these,  especially  to  the  first 
and  the  last  class.  Do  so.  Give  some  adjectives  that 
denote  intellectual  qualities;  some  that  denote  moral 
qualities  —  pertaining  to  right  and  wrong. 

An  and  a  are  forms  of  a  word  once  spelled  an  and 
meaning  one.  After  losing  something  of  this  force,  an 
was  still  used  before  vowels  and  consonants  alike ;  as, 
an  eagle,  an  ball,  an  hair,  an  use.  For  the  sake  of  ease 
in  speaking,  the  word  came  later  to  have  the  two 
forms  given  above ;  an  was  retained  before  letters 
having  vowel  sounds,  but  dropped  n  and  became  a  before 
letters  having  consonant  sounds.  This  is  the  present 
usage. 

Correct  these  errors  :  — 

A  apple ;  a  obedient  child ;  an  brickbat ;  an  busy  boy. 

Correct  these  errors  :  — 

A  heir ;  a  hour ;  a  honor. 

Notice  that  the  first  letter  of  these  words  is  silent. 

Correct  these  errors  :  — 

An  unit ;  an  utensil ;  an  university  ;  an  ewe ;  an  ewer ;  an  union  ; 
an  use ;  an  history ;  an  one-horse  sled. 

Unit  begins  with  the  sound  of  the  consonant  y ;  and 
one   with  that  of  w. 


Composition. 


43 


Mention  qualities  belonging  to  each  thing  here  named:  — 
chalk  ice  brooks  clouds 


water 


music 


Mention   animals   properly  described   by   these    adjec- 


tives :  — 

horned 

fleet 

cunning 

ferocious 

gentle 

graceful 

treacherous 

venomous 

faithful 

useful 

sagacious 

ruminant 

Careless  persons  and  those  with  a  meager  list  of  adjec- 
tives at  command  overwork  and  abuse  such  words  as  nice, 
awful,  horrid,  splendid,  elegant,  lovely,  and  say  nice  moun- 
tains, awful  pens,  horrid  ink,  splendid  pie,  elegant  beef, 
lovely  cheese,  etc. 

Study  the  meaning  of  the  last  six  adjectives,  and  use 
them  to  fill  the  following  blanks :  — 

distinction  f  palace 

workmanship  i  victory 

calculation  (  illumination 

stillness  (  manners 

chasm  •<  taste 

rumbling  (  furniture 

child  (  deeds 

features  1  dreams 

character  (  butchery 

This  work  may  very  profitably  be  extended.  It  begets 
close  observation  of  things  and  care  and  skill  in  describ- 
ing them. 


44  Graded   Lessons  In  English. 


A  word  picture  is  often  spoiled  by  using  too  many 
adjectives,  as :  — 

A  great,  large,  roomy,  spacious  hall ; 
Superb,  delicious,  magnificent  pumpkin-pie ; 
A  stingy,  miserly,  close-fisted  fellow. 

Omit  those  in  italics,  and  notice  how  the  description  is 
improved.  Subject  some  of  your  compositions  to  a  like 
treatment,  and  note  the  gain. 


LESSON  24. 
MODIFIED   PREDICATE. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  I  will  now  show  you  how 
the  predicate  of  a  sentence  may  be  modified. 

"The  ship  sails  gracefully."  What  word  is  here  joined 
to  sails  to  tell  the  manner  of  sailing  ?     P.  —  Gracefully. 

T.  — "  The  ship  sails  immediately."  What  word  is  here 
joined  to  sails  to  tell  the  time  of  sailing  ?  P.  — Immedi- 
ately. 

T. — "The  ship  sails  homeward."  What  word  is  here 
joined  to  sails  to  tell  the  direction  of  sailing  ?  P.  —  Home- 
ward. 

T.  —  These  words  gracefully,  immediately,  and  homeward 
are  modifiers  of  the  predicate.  In  the  first  sentence,  sails 
gracefully  is  the  Modified  Predicate. 

Let  the  following  modifiers  be  written  on  the  board  as 
the  pupil  suggests  them  :  — 


Modified  Predicate. 


45 


Which  words  indicate  the  time  of  sail- 
ing I  Which,  the  place  or  direction  ? 
Which,  the  manner  I 


r  instantly, 
soon, 
daily, 
hither. 
The  ship  sails  ]  hence, 
there, 
rapidly, 
smoothly, 
well. 

The  teacher  may  suggest  predicates,  and  require  the  pupils  to  find 
as  many  appropriate  modifiers  as  they  can. 

The  Predicate  with  its  modifiers  is  called  the  Modified 
Predicate. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Analyze  and  diagram  the  following  sentences,  and  parse 
the  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  and  adjectives  :  — 

Model.  —  The  letters  were  rudely  carved, 
letters        ,      were  carved 


M 


"Written  Parsing.  —  See  Model,  Lesson  22. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  sentence,  because ;  letters  is  the 

subject,  because ;  were  carved  is  the  predicate,  because ; 


The  is  a  modifier  of  the  subject,  because ;  rudely  is  a  modifier 

of  the  predicate,  because ;  The  letters  is  the  modified  subject, 

were  rudely  carved  is  the  modified  predicate. 


46  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


1.  He  spoke  eloquently. 

2.  She  chattered  incessantly. 

3.  They  searched  everywhere. 

4.  I  shall  know  presently. 

5.  The  bobolink  sings  joyously. 

6.  The  crowd  cheered  heartily. 

7.  A  great  victory  was  finally  won. 

8.  Threatening  clouds  are  moving  slowly. 

9.  The  deafening  waves  dash  angrily. 

10.  These  questions  may  be  settled  peaceably. 

11.  The  wounded  soldier  fought  bravely. 

12.  The  ranks  were  quickly  broken. 

13.  The  south  wind  blows  softly. 

14.  Times  will  surely  change. 

15.  An  hour  stole  on. 


LESSON  25. 

ANALYSIS   AND  PARSING. 

One  Modifier  joined  to  Another. 

Analyze  and  diagram  the  following  sentences,  and  parse 
the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  :  — 

Model.  —  The  frightened  animal  fled  still  more  rapidly. 

animal         ,  fled 


Review  Questions.  47 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  Notice  that  the  three  lines  form- 
ing this  group  all  slant  the  same  .way  to  show  that  each  stands  for  a 
modifying  word.  The  line  standing  for  the  principal  word  of  the 
group  is  joined  to  the  predicate  line.  The  end  of  each  of  the  other 
two  lines  is  broken,  and  turned  to  touch  its  principal  at  an  angle. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  sentence,  because ;  animal  is  the 

subject,  because ;  fled  is  the  predicate,  because ;  TJie  and 

frightened  are  modifiers  of  the  subject,  because ;   still  more 

rapidly  is  a  modifier  of  the  predicate,  because  it  is  a  group  of  words 
joined  to  it  to  limit  its  meaning ;  rapidly  is  the  principal  word  of 
the  group;  more  modifies  rapidly,  and  still  modifies  more;  The 
frightened  animal  is  the  modified  subject ;  fled  still  more  rapidly  is 
the  modified  predicate. 

1.  The  crocus  flowers  very  early. 

2.  A  violet  bed  is  budding  near. 

3.  The  Quakers  were  most  shamefully  persecuted. 

4.  Perhaps  he  will  return. 

5.  We  laughed  very  heartily. 

6.  The  yellow  poplar  leaves  floated  down. 

7.  The  wind  sighs  so  mournfully. 

8.  Few  men  have  ever  fought  so  stubbornly. 

9.  The  debt  will  probably  be  paid. 

10.  The  visitor  will  soon  be  here. 

11.  That  humane  project  was  quite  generously  sustained. 

12.  A  perfectly  innocent  man  was  very  cruelly  persecuted. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

What  is  an  adjective?  What  are  the  words  an  or  a,  and  the 
called  by  some  grammarians  ?  What  may  they  be  called  ?  When  is 
a  used,  and  when  an  ?  Give  examples  of  their  misuse.  Correct 
them,  and  give  your  reasons.     Adjectives  modify  by  expressing  what  1 


48  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


What  grows  out  of  the  careless  use,  or  of  a  scanty  list,  of  adjectives? 
What  is  said  of  some  overworked  adjectives  I  Of  a  superabundance 
of  adjectives? 

What  is  the  modified  predicate?     Give   an   example.     Give   an 
example  of  one  modifier  joined  to  another. 


LESSON  26. 


Select  your  subjects  from  Lesson  9,  and  construct  twenty 
sentences  having  modified  subjects  and  modified  predicates. 

IMPROMPTU   EXERCISE. 

Select  sentences  from  Lessons  6,  7,  and  11,  and  conduct  the  exer- 
cise as  directed  in  Lesson  10.  Let  the  struggle  be  to  see  who  can 
supply  the  greatest  number  of  modifiers  of  the  subject  and  of  the 
predicate.     The  teacher  can  vary  this  exercise. 


LESSON  27. 
ADVERBS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  You  have  learned,  in  the 
preceding  Lessons,  that  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  may 
be  qualified  by  modifiers,  and  that  one  modifier  may  be 
joined  to  another.  Words  used  to  modify  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence  and  those  used  to  modify  modifiers  belong  to 
one  class,  or  one  part  of  speech,  and  are  called  Adverbs. 

T.  —  "  She  decided  too  hastily,'"  What  word  tells  how 
she  decided  ?     P.  — Hastily.     T.  —  What  word  tells  how 


Adverbs.  49 


hastily  ?  P.  —  Too.  T.  —  What  then  are  the  words  too 
and   hastily?     P. — Adverbs. 

T.  — "  Too  much  time  has  been  wasted."  What 
word  modifies  much  by  telling  how  much  ?  P.  —  Too. 
T.  —  What  part  of  speech  is  much?  P.- — An  adjective. 
T.  —  AVhat  then  is  too  t     P.  — An  adverb. 

T.  —  Why  is  too  in  the  first  sentence  an  adverb  ?  Why 
is  too  in  the  second  sentence  an  adverb  ?  Why  is  hastily 
an  adverb  ? 

Let  the  teacher  use  the  following  and  similar  examples, 
and  continue  the  questions:  "He  thinks  so ;"  "So  much 
time  has  been  wasted." 

Let  the  teacher  give  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs,  and 
require  the  pupils  to  modify  them  by  appropriate  adverbs. 

Definition.  —  An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
Analyze,  diagram,  and  parse  the  following  sentences. 

Model.  —  We  have  been  very  agreeably  disappointed.  Diagram 
as  in  Lesson  25. 

For  "Written  Parsing,  use  Model,  Lesson  22,  adding  a  column  for 
adverbs. 

Oral  Parsing.  —  We  is  a  pronoun,  because ;  have  been  dis- 
appointed is  a  verb,  because ;  very  is  an  adverb,  because  it  is 

joined  to  the  adverb  agreeably  to  tell  how  agreeably ;  agreeably  is  an 
adverb,  because  it  is  joined  to  the  verb  have  been  disappointed 
to  indicate  manner. 


50  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


1.  The  plow-boy  plods  homeward. 

2.  The  water  gushed  forth. 

3.  Too  much  time  was  wasted. 

4.  She  decided  too  hastily. 

5.  You  should  listen  more  attentively. 

6.  More  difficult  sentences  must  be  built. 

7.  An  intensely  painful  operation  was  performed. 

8.  The  patient  suffered  intensely. 

9.  That  story  was  peculiarly  told. 

10.  A  peculiarly  interesting  story  was  told. 

11.  An  extravagantly  high  price  was  paid. 

12.  That  lady  dresses  extravagantly. 

What  adverbs  in  these  sentences  modify  by  expressing 
(1)  manner,  (2)  degree,  and  (3)  place  or  direction  ? 

The  pupil  will  notice  that,  in  some  of  the  examples 
above,  the  same  adverb  modifies  an  adjective  in  one  sen- 
tence and  an  adverb  in  another ;  and  that,  in  other  exam- 
ples, an  adjective  and  a  verb  are  modified  by  the  same 
word.  You  learn  from  this  why  such  modifiers  are 
grouped  into  one  class. 


LESSON  28. 

ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

Miscellaneous  Examples  for  Eeview. 

1.  You  must  diagram  neatly. 

2.  The  sheaves  are  nearly  gathered. 

3.  The  wheat  is  duly  garnered. 

4.  The  fairies  were  called  together. 


Composition. 


5.  The  birds  chirp  merrily. 

6.  This  reckless  adventurer  has  returned. 

7.  The  wild  woods  rang. 

8.  White,  fleecy  clouds  are  floating  above. 

9.  Those  severe  laws  have  been  repealed. 

10.  A  republican  government  was  established. 

11.  An  unusually  large  crop  had  just  been  harvested. 

12.  She  had  been  waiting  quite  patiently. 

13.  A  season  so  extremely  warm  had  never  before  been  known 

14.  So  brave  a  deed1  cannot  be  too  warmly  commended. 


h<* 


LESSON  29. 

COMPOSITION. 

Miscellaneous  Exercises  for  Eeview. 

Build  sentences  containing  the  following  adverbs  :  — 

Hurriedly,  solemnly,  lightly,  well,  how,  somewhere,  abroad,  for- 
ever, seldom,  exceedingly. 

Using  the  following  subjects  and  predicates  as  foun- 
dations, build  six  sentences  having  modified  subjects  and 
modified  predicates,  two  of  which  shall  contain  adverbs 
modifying  adjectives  ;  two,  adverbs  modifying  adverbs ; 
and  two,  adverbs  modifying  verbs. 


1 . boat  glides .  4. 

2. cloud  is  rising .  5. 

3. breezes  are  blowing .  6. 


-  elephant  was  captured  - 

-streams  flow . 

-spring  has  opened 


1  Can  be  commended  is  the  verb,  and  not  is  an  adverb. 


52 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


We  here  give  you,  in  classes,  the  material  out  of  which 
you  are  to  build  five  sentences  with  modified  subjects  and 
modified  predicates. 

Select  the  subject  and  the  predicate  first:  — 


Nouns  and 

Pronouns. 

Verbs. 

Adjectives. 

Adverbs. 

branch 

was  running 

large,  that 

lustily 

coach 

were  played 

both,  the 

downward 

they 

cried 

all,  an 

very 

we 

is  growing 

several,  a 

rapidly 

games 

cheered 

amusing 

not,  loudly,  then 

LBSS( 

DN   30. 

ERRORS   FOR   CORRECTION. 

Caution. — When  two  or  more  adjectives  are  used  with  a 

noun,  care  must  be  taken  in  their  arrangement.     If  there 

is  any  difference  in  their  relative  importance,  place  nearest 

the  noun  the  one  that  is  most  intimately  connected  with  it. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  We  have  in  mind  here  those  numerous  cases 
where  one  adjective  modifies  the  noun,  and  the  second  modifies  the  noun 
as  limited  by  the  first.  "All  ripe  apples  are  picked."  Here  ripe  modifies 
apples,  but  all  modifies  apples  limited  by  ripe.  Not  all  apples  are  picked, 
but  only  all  that  are  ripe. 

Correct  the  following  errors  of  position :  — 

A  wooden  pretty  bowl  stood  on  the  table. 
The  blue  beautiful  sky  is  cloudless. 
A  young  industrious  man  was  hired. 
The  new  marble  large  house  was  sold. 


Errors  for,  Correction.  53 


Caution. — When  the  adjectives  are  of  the  same  rank, 
place  them  where  they  will  sound  the  best.  This  will 
usually  be  in  the  order  of  their  length — the  longest  last. 

Correct  these  errors  :  — 

An  entertaining  and  fluent  speaker  followed;  An  enthusiastic, 
noisy,  large  crowd  was  addressed. 

Caution.  —  Do  not  use  the  pronoun  them  for  the  adjective 
those. 

Correct  these  errors  :  — 

Them  books  are  nicely  bound ;  Them  two  sentences  should  be  cor- 
rected. 

Pupils  may  be  required  to  copy  choice  selections  from 
literature,  and  to  note  carefully  capitals,  punctuation,  and 
the  use  of  adjectives,  etc.  We  offer  the  following  exercise 
as  a  specimen  :  — 

We  piled  with  care  our  nightly  stack 
Of  wood  against  the  chimney-back,  — 
The  oaken  log,  green,  huge,  and  thick, 
And  on  its  top  the  stout  back-stick ; 
The  knotty  fore-stick  laid  apart, 
And  filled  between  with  curious  art 
The  ragged  brush ;  then,  hovering  near, 
We  watched  the  first  red  blaze  appear, 
Heard  the  sharp  crackle,  caught  the  gleam 
On  whitewashed  wall  and  sagging  beam, 
Until  the  old,  rude- furnished  room 
Burst,  flower-like,  into  rosy  bloom. 

Whittier.  —  Snow-Bound. 


54 


Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


Of  what  are  the  lines,  above,  a  picture  ?  Where  and  in 
what  kind  of  house,  do  you  think  this  picture  was  seen  ? 

What  object  is  pictured  by  the  help  of  five  adjectives  ? 
Are  the  adjectives  that  precede  the  name  of  this  object  of 
the  same  rank  ?  Are  those  that  follow  of  the  same  rank  ? 
What  noun  is  modified  by  three  adjectives  of  different 
rank  ?  What  noun  by  three  adjectives  two  of  which  are 
of  the  same  rank  ?  What  difference  is  found  in  the  punc- 
tuation of  these  several  groups  ?  Are  there  any  groups  of 
words  used  to  modify  verbs  or  nouns  ?  If  there  are  and 
you  can  find  them,  show  what  words  they  modify. 

Notice  how  the  noun  crackle  crackles  as  you  pronounce 


Review  Questions.  55 


it,  and  how  the  adjective  sharp  makes  it  penetrate. 
Notice  how  strong  a  picture  is  made  in  the  two  lines  im- 
mediately before  the  last. 

Why  does  Whittier  use  nightly  in  line  1  ?  What  does 
stout  in  line  4  mean  ?  What  is  understood  after  between  in 
line  6  ?  What  propriety  in  calling  brush  ragged  in  line  7  ? 
What  does  sagging  in  line  10  suggest  ?  What  color  does 
rosy  in  the  last  line  denote  ?     Are  all  roses  of  one  color  ? 

The  adjectives  here  used  bring  out  the  most  prominent 
qualities  of  the  room,  and  these  qualities  bring  along  with 
them  into  the  imagination  all  the  other  qualities.  This 
is  what  we  must  try  to  make  our  adjectives  do. 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  selection  above,  and 
explain  the  office  of  each. 

What  peculiar  use  of  capitals  do  you  discover  in  these 
lines  of  poetry? 

Much  that  has  been  suggested  above  concerning  the  use 
of  adjectives  will  apply  to  adverbs  also. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

What  is  an  adverb  ?  Give  an  example  of  an  adverb  modifying  an 
adjective;  one  modifying  a  verb;  one  modifying  an  adverb.  Why 
are  such  expressions  as  a  wooden  pretty  bowl  faulty  ?  Why  is  an 
enthusiastic,  noisy,  large  crowd  faulty  ?    Why  is  them  books  wrong  ? 

Thus  far  we  have  been  dealing  with  sentences  not  con- 
nected with  other  sentences.  But  we  seldom  find  them 
standing  thus  apart  and  alone.  They  are  usually  grouped 
in  paragraphs  —  each  sentence  of  the  group  helping  to 


56  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


develop,  and  all  together  developing,  the  general  thought 
of  the  paragraph.  This  their  joint  work  relates  them 
one  to  another,  and  gives  them  properties  which  they 
would  not  have  if  they  stood  alone. 

To  understand  sentences  fully  then  we  must  study 
them  in  paragraphs  ;  to  master  their  construction,  we 
must  compose  them  in  paragraphs.  To  be  known  and 
handled  as  parts  of  a  whole,  the  whole  must  be  studied. 

Composition  of  Sentences  in  Paragraphs, 
selection  from  darwin. 

Morren  says  that  angleworms  often  lie  for  hours  almost  motionless 
close  beneath  the  mouths  of  their  burrows.  I  have  occasionally 
noticed  the  same  fact  with  worms  kept  in  pots  in  the  house ;  so  that 
by  looking  down  into  their  burrows  their  heads  could  just  be  seen. 
If  the  ejected  earth  or  rubbish  over  the  burrows  be  suddenly  removed, 
the  end  of  the  worm's  body  may  very  often  be  seen  rapidly  retreating. 

This  habit  of  lying  near  the  surface  leads  to  their  destruction  to  an 
immense  extent.  Every  morning,  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
the  thrushes  and  blackbirds  on  all  the  lawns  throughout  the  country 
draw  out  of  their  holes  an  astonishing  number  of  worms ;  and  this 
they  could  not  do  unless  they  lay  close  to  the  surface. 

It  is  not  probable  that  worms  behave  in  this  manner  for  the  sake 
of  breathing  fresh  air,  for  they  can  live  for  a  long  time  under  water. 
I  believe  that  they  lie  near  the  surface  for  the  sake  of  warmth, 
especially  in  the  morning;  and  we  shall  hereafter  find  that  they 
often  coat  the-  mouths  of  their  burrows  with  leaves,  apparently  to 
prevent  their  bodies  from  coming  into  close  contact  with  the  cold, 
damp  earth. 


Sentences  in  Paragraphs.  57 


The  Uses  of  "Words  and  Groups  of  "Words.  —  We  will  break  up 
Mr.  Darwin's  first  group  of  sentences  into  single  sentences  or  single 
statements,  each  having  but  one  predicate  verb. 

1.  Angleworms  often  lie  for  hours  almost  motionless  close  beneath 
the  mouths  of  their  burrows.  2.  Morren  says  this.  3.  I  have 
occasionally  noticed  the  same  fact  with  worms  kept  in  pots  in  the 
house.  4.  By  looking  down  into  their  burrows  their  heads  could 
just  be  seen.  5.  The  ejected  earth  or  rubbish  over  the  burrows  may 
suddenly  be  removed.  6.  The  end  of  the  worm's  body  may  then 
very  often  be  seen  rapidly  retreating. 

Find  the  two  chief  words  (subject  and  predicate)  in  1.  What 
does  often  do  ?  What  does  the  group  of  words  for  hours  do  ?  The 
group  almost  motionless  describes  what  things?  The  group  close 
beneath  the  mouths  of  their  burrows,  use.d  like  a  single  adverb,  tells 
what  ?  Find  the  two  chief  words  in  2.  This  helps  out  the  meaning 
of  says,  but  it  is  not  an  adverb.  This  is  a  pronoun  standing  here 
for  the  thing  said.  What  whole  sentence  does  this  take  the  place  of? 
Find  the  subject  and  the  predicate  verb  in  3.  What  noun  follows 
this  verb  to  tell  what  Mr.  Darwin  noticed  I  What  does  occasionally 
do  ?  What  does  same  go  with  ?  What  group  of  eight  words  tells  in 
what  way  Mr.  Darwin  noticed  this  fact  ?  Find  the  unmodified  sub- 
ject and  predicate  in  4.  What  does  the  second  their  go  with? 
What  does  by  looking  down  into  their  burroics  tell?  What  does 
just  do?  In  5,  put  what  before  may  be  removed,  and  find  two 
words  either  of  which  may  be  used  as  subject.  What  is  the  office  of 
the,  ejected,  and  the  group  over  the  burroics  ?  What  does  suddenly 
do?  Find  the  subject  and  the  predicate  verb  in  6.  Retreating 
helps  out  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  and  at  the  same  time  modi- 
fies the  subject.  Notice  that  the  end  rapidly  retreating  is  not  a 
sentence,  nor  is  worms  kept  in  pots,  in  3.  Retreating  and  kept  here 
express  action,  but  they  are  not  predicates;   they  do  not   assert. 


58  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


You  learned  in  Lesson  16  that  certain  forms  of  the  verb  do  not  assert. 
Of  the  worm's  body  modifies  what  I  Then  and  very  often  do  what  t 
If  you  will  compare  these  numbered  sentences  with  Mr.  Darwin's, 
you  will  see  how  two  or  more  sentences  are  put  together  to  make  one 
longer  sentence.  You  see  Mr.  Darwin  puts  our  sentence  1  after  says 
to  tell  what  Morren  says.  What  word  here  helps  to  bring  two  sen- 
tences together  1  Change  this  sentence  about  so  as  make  says  Mor- 
ren come  last.  See  how  many  other  changes  you  can  make  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  words  and  groups  of  words  in  this  sentence. 
What  two  words  are  used  to  join  3  and  4  together?  Notice  that 
these  sentences  are  not  joined  so  closely  as  1  and  2,  as  is  shown  by 
the  semicolon.  Notice  that  if  has  much  to  do  in  joining  5  and  6. 
These  are  more  closely  joined  than  3  and  4,  but  not  so  closely  as  1  and 
2.  How  is  this  shown  by  the  punctuation  ?  Put  5  and  6  together 
and  change  their  order.     Find,  if  you  can,  still  another  arrangement. 

To  the  Teacher.  — It  is  very  important  that  pupils  should  learn 
to  see  words  in  groups  and  to  note  their  offices.  If  difficulties  and 
technicalities  be  avoided,  such  exercises  as  we  suggest  above  may  be 
begun  very  early.  They  will  lead  to  an  intelligent  observation  of  lan- 
guage and  will  prepare  the  way  for  the  more  formal  lessons  of  the 
text-book. 

If  time  can  be  had,  such  exercises,  may  profitably  be  continued 
through  the  second  and  third  paragraphs  of  the  selection  above. 

The  Paragraph.  —  If  we  write  about  only  one  thing  or  one  point, 
our  sentences  will  be  closely  related  to  each  other.  If  we  write  on 
two  or  more  points,  there  will  be  two  or  more  sets  of  sentences  —  the 
sentences  of  each  set  closely  related  one  to  another,  but  the  sets 
themselves  not  so  closely  related.  A  group  of  sentences  expressing 
what  we  have  to  say  on  a  single  point,  or  division,  of  our  subject  is 
called  a  paragraph.  How  many  paragraphs  do  you  find  in  the  selec- 
tion above  1     How  are  they  separated  on  the  page  ? 


Sentences  in  Paragraphs.  59 


Let  us  examine  this  selection  more  carefully  to  find  whether  the 
sentences  of  each  group  are  all  on  a  single  point  and  closely  related, 
and  whether  the  groups  themselves  are  related.  Do  the  sentences  of 
the  first  paragraph  all  help  to  tell  of  a  certain  habit  of  angleworms  ? 
Do  the  sentences  of  the  second  paragraph  tell  what  results  from  this 
habit  1  Do  the  sentences  of  the  third  paragraph  tell  what  is  thought 
to  be  the  cause  of  this  habit  I  If  you  can  say  yes  to  these  questions, 
the  sentences  in  each  paragraph  must  be  closely  related.  Are  a  habit, 
a  result  of  it,  and  a  cause  of  it  related  in  thought,  or  meaning  ?  If 
so,  the  paragraphs  are  related.  In  the  fewest  words  needed,  tell  what 
this  habit  is,  what  the  result  of  it  is,  and  what  the  cause  of  it  is. 

You  must  now  see  that  paragraphing  helps  the  writer  in  plan- 
ning his  production  and  arranging  his  matter,  and  helps  the  reader  to 
understand  what  the  writer  has  done. 

The  Style.  —  We  shall  not  here  say  much  about  what  we  may 
call  the  style  of  the  author  —  his  way  of  putting  his  thought,  or 
manner  of  expressing  it.  But  this  you  will  notice  :  his  words  are 
few,  plain,  and  simple ;  the  arrangement  of  them  is  easy ;  and  hence 
what  is  said  is  said  clearly.  You  are  nowhere  in  doubt  about  his 
meaning  unless  it  be  in  the  second  paragraph.  It  may  puzzle  you  to 
see  what  their,  they,  and  they  in  the  second  sentence  of  this  para- 
graph stand  for.  Transpose  an  astonishing  number  of  worms  and 
out  of  their  holes,  and  substitute  birds  and  worms  for  they  and  theyt 
and  see  whether  the  meaning  would  not  be  clearer.  Clearness  is 
worth  all  it  costs.    You  cannot  take  too  much  pains  to  be  understood. 

First-hand  Knowledge.  —  As  you  know,  we  get  our  knowledge  in 
two  ways.  We  get  it  by  seeing,  and  thinking  about  what  we  see ; 
and  we  get  it  by  listening  to  other  people  and  reading  what  they 
have  written.  What  we  get  by  seeing,  by  observation,  is  first-hand 
knowledge;   what  we   get  from  others   is   second-hand   knowledge. 


60  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Both  kinds  are  useful  5   we  cannot  have  too  much  of  either.     But 

the  kind  that  it  does  us  most  good  to  get  and  is  worth  most  to  us 

when  got  is  first-hand  knowledge.     This  especially  is  the  kind  which 

you  should  make  your  compositions  of.     In  the  first  two  paragraphs 

of  the  selection  above,  Darwin  is  telling  what  he  saw,  and  in  the 

third  he  is  explaining  what  he  saw.     That  is  why  what  he  says  is  so 

fresh  and  interesting. 

And  just  one  thing  more.     If  such  a  man  as  Charles  Darwin 

thought  it  worth  his  while  to  spend  much  time  in  studying  and 

experimenting  upon   angleworms   and  then  to  write  a  large  book 

about  them,  surely  you  need  not  think  anything  in  nature  beneath 

your  notice. 

Original  Composition. 

In  two  or  three  short  paragraphs,  tell  what  you  have  observed  of 
some  worm,  insect,  or  other  creature,  and  what  you  think  about  it. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  We  suggest  that  what  is  said  above  be  read  by 
the  pupils  and  discussed  in  the  class,  and  that  the  substance  of  it  be 
reproduced  in  the  pupils'  own  language.  Such  reproduction  will  serve 
as  a  lesson  in  oral  composition. 

It  may  be  profitable  for  the  pupils  to  reproduce  the  selection  from 
Darwin. 

LESSON  31. 
PHRASES  INTRODUCED   BY  PREPOSITIONS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — In  Lessons  25  and  27,  you 
learned  that  several  words  may  be  grouped  together  and 
used  as  one  modifier.  In  the  examples  there  given,  the 
principal  word  is  joined  directly  to  the  subject  or  to  the 
predicate,  and  this  word  is  modified  by  another  word. 
In  Lesson  30  and  in  this,  groups  of  words  are  used  as 


Phrases  Introduced  by  Prepositions.  61 


modifiers,  but  these  words  are  not  united  with  one  another, 
or  with  the  word  which  the  group  modifies,  as  they  are 
in  the  preceding  Lessons. 

I  will  write  on  the  board  this  sentence :  "  De  Soto 
marched  into  Florida" 

T.  —  What  tells  where  De  Soto  marched?  P. — Into 
Florida.  T. —  What  is  the  principal  word  of  the  group? 
P.  — Florida.  T.  — Is  Florida  joined  directly  to  the  predi- 
cate, as  rapidly  was  in  Lesson  25  ?  P. — No.  T. — What 
little  word  comes  in  to  unite  the  modifier  to  marched? 
P.  — Into.  T.  —  Does  Florida  alone,  tell  where  he  marched? 
P. — No.  T. — Does  into  alone,  tell  where  he  marched? 
P.— No. 

T. — These  groups  of  related  words  are  called  Phrases. 
Let  the  teacher  draw  on  the  board  the  diagram  of  the 
sentence  above. 

Phrases  of  the  form  illustrated  in  this  diagram  are  the* 
most  common,  and  they  perform  a  very  important  function 
in  our  language. 

Let  the  teacher  frequently  call  attention  to  the  fact  that; 
all  the  words  of  a  phrase  are  taken  together  to  perform 
one  distinct  office. 

A  phrase  modifying  the  subject  is  equivalent  to  an 
adjective,  and  frequently  may  be  changed  into  one.  "The 
dew  of  the  morning  has  passed  away."  What  word  may 
be  used  for  the  phrase,  of  the  morning  ?  P.  —  Morning. 
T. — Yes.     "The  morning  dew  has  passed  away." 


62  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


A  phrase  modifying  the  predicate  is  equivalent  to  an 
adverb,  and  frequently  may  be  changed  into  one.  "We 
shall  go  to  that  place."  What  word  may  be  used  for  the 
phrase,  to  that  place?  P.  —  There.  T. — Yes.'  "We  shall 
go  there." 

Change  the  phrases  in  these  sentences  :  — 

A  citizen  of  America  was  insulted;  We  walked  toward 
home. 

Let  the  teacher  write  on  the  board  the  following  words, 
and  require  the  pupils  to  add  to  each,  one  or  more  words 
to  complete  a  phrase,  and  then  to  construct  a  sentence  in 
which  the  phrase  is  properly  employed :  to,  from,  by,  at,  on, 
with,  in,  into,  over.  * 

Definition. — A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words  denoting  related 
ideas  but  not  expressing  a  thought. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  nouns, 
pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs. 

Model.  —  The  finest  trout  in  the  lake  are  generally  caught  in 
the  deepest  water. 

trout  ,     are  caught 


Phrases  Introduced  by  Prepositions.  63 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  You  will  notice  that  the  diagram 
of  the  phrase  is  made  up  of  a  planting  line  standing  for  the  intro- 
ductory and  connecting  word,  and  a  horizontal  line  representing  the 
principal  word.  Under  the  latter  are  placed  the  little  slanting  lines 
standing  for  the  modifiers  of  the  principal  word.  Here  and  elsewhere 
all  modifiers  are  joined  to  the  principal  words  by  slanting  lines. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  sentence,  because ;  trout  is  the 

subject,  because ;  are  caught  is  the  predicate,  because ; 

the  words  The  and  finest,  and  the  phrase  in  the  lake  are  modifiers  of 

the  subject,  because ;  the  word  generally  and  the  phrase  in  the 

deepest  water  are  modifiers  of  the  predicate,  because ;  in  intro- 
duces the  first  phrase,  and  lake  is  the  principal  word ;  in  introduces 
the  second  phrase,  and  water  is  the  principal  word ;  the  and  deepest 
are  modifiers  of  water;  The  finest  trout  in  the  lake  is  the  modified 
subject,  and  are  generally  caught  in  the  deepest  water  is  the  modified 
predicate. 

1.  The  gorilla  lives  in  Africa. 

2.  It  seldom  rains  in  Egypt. 

3.  The  Pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth. 

4.  The  wet  grass  sparkled  in  the  light. 

5.  The  little  brook  ran  swiftly  under  the  bridge. 

6.  Burgoyne  surrendered  at  Saratoga. 

7.  The  steeples  of  the  village  pierced  through  the  dense  fog. 

8.  The  gloom  of  winter  settled  down  on  everything. 

9.  A  gentle  breeze  blows  from  the  south. 

10.  The  temple  of  Solomon  was  destroyed. 

11.  The  top  of  the  mountain  is  covered  with  snow. 

12.  The  second  Continental  Congress  convened  at  Philadelphia. 

Name  the  phrases  of  place  in  these  sentences ;  the  verba 
modified  by  adverbs  and  by  phrases ;  the  nouns  modified 
by  phrases ;  the  sentences  containing  each  two  phrases. 


64  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON    32. 
COMPOSITION. 


Build   sentences,   employing   the  following   phrases  as 
modifiers :  — 

To  Europe,  of  oak,  from  Albany,  at  the  station,  through  the  fields, 
fcr  vacation,  among  the  Indians,  of  the  United  States. 

Prefix  to  the  following  predicates  subjects  modified  by 
phrases :  — 

is  situated  on  the  Thames.  was  received. 

has  arrived.  has  just  been  completed. 

was  destroyed  Jby  an  earthquake.   may  be  enjoyed. 

Add  to  the  following  subjects  predicates  modified  by 
phrases :  — 

Iron .  The  Bible .  Paul . 

The  trees .  Sugar .  Strawberries . 

Squirrels .  Cheese  — — .  The  mountain . 


Write  five  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  one  or 
more  phrases  used  as  modifiers. 

You  have  all  been  on  picnics  and  know  a  great  deal 
about  them.  You  know  what  they  are  and  what  they  are 
for  ;  to  what  places  they  are  excursions,  who  go,  how 
they  go,  what  is  carried  along,  what  games  are  played, 
how  the  feast  is  served  and  eaten,  what  fun  and  recreation 
and  enjoyment  are  had,  and  how  tired  everybody  gets  ! 

Study  the  picture  minutely ;  name  the  three  features  of 
a  picnic  which  you  think  are  most  enjoyable,  and  expand 


Composition* 


65 


"The  Children's  Pionic." 


66  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


these  three  headings,  or  sub-topics,  into  three  paragraphs, 
which  when  put  together  make  a  composition. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  See  that  the  paragraphs  of  the  composition 
fairly  exhaust  the  thought  of  the  head,  or  sub-topic,  that  they  stand  in 
proper  order,  and  that  they  are  composed  of  sentences  varied  in  kind  and 
length. 

Allow  for  the  individuality  of  your  pupils .  in  the  selection  and  in  the 
grouping  of  the  matter. 

LESSON  33. 
COMPOSITION. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  changing  the  itali- 
cized words  into  equivalent  phrases :  — 

Model.  —  A  golden  image  was  made  =  An  image  of  gold  was 
made. 

You  notice  that  the  adjective  golden  is  placed  before  the  subject, 
but,  when  changed  to  a  phrase,  it  follows  the  subject. 

1.  The  book  was  carefully  read. 

2.  The  old  soldiers  fought  courageously. 

3.  A  group  of  children  were  strolling  homeward. 

4.  No  season  of  life  should  be  spent  idly. 

5.  The  English  ambassador  has  just  arrived. 

6.  That  generous  act  was  liberally  rewarded. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  changing  phrases  to 
adjectives  or  adverbs,  and  most  of  the  adjectives  and 
adverbs  to  phrases  :  — 

1.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever. 

2.  English  grammar  is  remarkably  simple. 


Prepositions.  67 


3.  In  all  cases  vulgarisms  are  to  be  shunned. 

4.  The  conclusions  of  science  are  sometimes  only  highly  probable. 

5.  The  word  demijohn  has  sadly  puzzled  people. 

Change  the  following  adjectives  and  adverbs  into 
equivalent  phrases,  and  employ  the  phrases  in  sentences 
of  your  own  :  — 

Wooden,  penniless,  eastward,  somewhere,  here,  evening,  every* 
where,  yonder,  joyfully,  wintry. 

Make  a  sentence  out  of  the  words  in  each  line  below  :  — » 

Boat,  waves,  glides,  the,  the,  over. 

He,  Sunday,  church,  goes,  the,  on,  to. 

Year,  night,  is  dying,  the,  the,  in. 

Qualities,  Charlemagne,  vices,  were  alloyed,  the,  great,  of,  with. 

Indians,  America,  intemperance,  are  thinned,  the,  out,  of,  by. 


LESSON  34. 
PREPOSITIONS. 


Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  In  the  preceding  Lessons, 
the  little  words  placed  before  nouns  and  with  them  form- 
ing phrases  belong  to  a  class  of  words  called  Prepositions. 
You  noticed  that  these  words,  which  you  have  now 
learned  to  call  prepositions,  introduce  phrases.  The 
preposition  shows  the  relation  of  the  thing  denoted  by 
the  principal  word  of  the  phrase  to  that  of  the  word  which 
the  phrase  modifies.     It  serves  also  to  connect  these  words. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  squirrel  ran  up  a  tree"  what 


68  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


word  shows  the  relation  of  the  act  of  running,  tr  the  tree? 
Ans.     Up. 

Other  words  may  be  used  to  express  different  relations. 
Repeat,  nine  times,  the  sentence  above  given,  supplying 
in  the  place  of  up  each  of  the  following  prepositions  : 
around,  behind,  down,  into,  over,  through,  to,  under,  from. 

Let  this  exercise  be  continued,  using  such  sentences  as, 
"  The  man  went  into  the  house  ;  "  "  The  ship  sailed  toward 
the  bay." 

Definition.  —  A  Preposition  is  a  word  that  introduces  a 
phrase  modifier,  and  shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its  prin- 
cipal word  to  the  word  modified. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Model.  —  Flowers  preach  to  us. 

For  analysis  and  diagram,  see  Lesson  31. 

For  written  parsing,  see  Lesson  22.     Add  the  needed  columns. 

Oral  Parsing.  —  Flowers  is  a  noun,  because ;  preach  is  a 

verb,  because ;  to  is  a  preposition,  because  it  shows  the  rela- 
tion, in  sense,  between  us  and  preach;  us  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  is 
used  instead  of  the  name  of  the  speaker  and  the  names  of  those  for 
whom  he  speaks. 

1.  The  golden  lines  of  sunset  glow. 

2.  A  smiling  landscape  lay  before  us. 

3.  Columbus  was  born  at  Genoa. 

4.  The  forces  of  Hannibal  were  routed  by  Scipio. 

5.  The  capital  of  New  York  is  on  the  Hudson. 

6.  The  ships  sail  over  the  boisterous  sea. 


Impromptu  Exercise.  ^ 


7.  All  names  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

8.  Air  is  composed  chiefly  of  two  invisible  gases. 

9.  The  greater  portion  of  South  America  lies  between  the  tropics. 

10.  The  laurels  of  the  warrior  must  at  all  times  be  dyed  in  blood. 

11.  The  first  word  of  every  entire  sentence  should  begin  with  a 
capital  letter. 

12.  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  generally  placed  before  the 
predicate. 

The  words  and  the  phrases  in  the  sentences  above  are 
in  what  we  call  their  natural  order.  From  any  of  these 
sentences  determine  the  natural  order  (1)  of  subject  and 
predicate,  and  (2)  of  the  phrase  and  the  word  it  modifies ; 
from  1,  6,  7,  8,  and  11,  determine  the  natural  order  of  (3) 
adjectives  and  the  nouns  they  modify ;  and  from  8,  10, 11, 
and  12,  determine  the  places  an  adverb  or  a  phrase  may 
hold  with  respect  to  its  verb  (4)  when  this  is  made  up 
of  two  or  more  words. 

If  placed  out  of  their  natural  order,  words  and  phrases 
are  said  to  be  transposed ;  and,  as  we  shall  see,  this  may 
involve  the  use  of  the  comma. 

IMPROMPTU  EXERCISE. 

Let  the  teacher  write  on  the  board  a  subject  and  a  predicate  that 
will  admit  of  many  modifiers.  The  pupils  are  to  expand  the  sentence 
into  as  many  sentences  as  possible,  each  containing  one  apt  phrase 
modifier.  The  competition  is  to  see  who  can  build  the  most  and  the 
best  sentences  in  a  given  time.  The  teacher  gathers  up  the  slates 
and  reads  the  work  aloud,  or  has  the  pupils  exchange  slates  and  read 
it  themselves. 


70  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON  35. 


COMPOUND  SUBJECT  AND   COMPOUND  PKEDICATE. 


When  two  or  more  subjects  united  by  a  connecting 
word  have  the  same  predicate,  they  form  a  Compound 
Subject ;  and,  when  two  or  more  predicates  connected  in 
like  manner  have  the  same  subject,  they  form  a  Compound 
Predicate. 

In  the  sentence,  "Birds  and  bees  can  fly,"  the  two 
words  birds  and  bees,  connected  by  and,  have  the  same 
predicate  ;  the  same  action  is  asserted  of  both  birds  and 
bees.  In  the  sentence,  "  Leaves  fade  and  fall"  two  asser- 
tions are  made  of  the  same  things.  In  the  first  sentence, 
birds  and  bees  form  the  compound  subject ;  and,  in  the 
second,  fade  and/aK  form  the  compound  predicate. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  words:  — 

Models.  —  Napoleon  rose,  reigned,  and  fell. 

Frogs,  antelopes,  and  kangaroos  can  jump. 


rose 


Jfyo* 


JVapoJeoni 


reigned 


M_ 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  The  short  line  following  the  sub- 
ject line  represents  the  entire  predicate,  and  is  supposed  to  be  continued 
in  the  three  horizontal  lines  that  follow,  each  of  which  represents  one 
of  the  parts  of  the  compound  predicate.     These  three  lines  are  united 


Review  Questions.  71 


by  dotted  lines,  which  stand  for  the  connecting  words.  The  X  de- 
notes that  an  and  is  understood. 

Study  this  explanation  carefully,  and  you  will  understand  the 
other  diagram. 

Oral  Analysis  of  the  first  sentence. 

This  is  a  sentence,  because ;  Napoleon  is  the  subject,  because 

;  rose,  reigned,  and  fell  form  the  compound  predicate,  because 

they  belong  in  common  to  the  same  subject,  and  say  something  about 
Napoleon.     And  connects  reigned  and  fell. 

1.  The  Khine  and  the  Khone  rise  in  Switzerland. 

2.  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

3.  Washington  and  Lafayette  fought  for  American  independence. 

4.  Wild  birds  shrieked,  and  fluttered  on  the  ground. 

5.  The  mob  raged  and  roared. 

6.  The  seasons  came  and  went. 

7.  Pride,  poverty,  and  fashion  cannot  live  in  the  same  house. 

8.  The  tables  of  stone  were  cast  to  the  ground  and  broken. 

9.  Silver  or  gold  will  be  received  in  payment. 

10.    Days,  months,  years,  and  ages  will  circle  away. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  phrase  ?  A  phrase  modifying  a  subject  is  equivalent  to 
what  ?  Illustrate.  A  phrase  modifying  a  predicate  is  equivalent  to 
what  ?     Illustrate. 

What  are  prepositions?  Give  the  definition.  What  is  the 
natural  order  of  subject  and  predicate  ?  Of  a  phrase  and  the  word 
it  modifies?  Of  adjectives  and  their  nouns?  Of  an  adverb  and  the 
verb  it  modifies  when  this  is  one  word  ?  When  two  or  more  words  ? 
What  do  you  understand  by  a  compound  subject  ?  Illustrate.  What 
do  you  understand  by  a  compound  predicate  ?     Illustrate. 


72  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON  36. 
CONJUNCTIONS   AND    INTERJECTIONS. 

The  words  and  and  or,  used  in  the  preceding  Lesson  to 
connect  the  nouns  and  the  verbs,  belong  to  a  class  of 
words  called  Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions  may  connect  words  used  as  modifiers 
also,  as  :  — 

A  daring  but  foolish  feat  was  performed. 

They  may  connect  phrases,  as :  — 

We  shall  go  to  Saratoga  and  to  Niagara. 

They  may  connect  clauses  —  that  is,  expressions  that, 
standing  alone,  would  be  sentences,  as :  — 

He  must  increase,  but  I  must  decrease. 

Definition.  —  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

The  Interjection  is  the  eighth  and  last  part  of  speech. 
Interjections  are  mere  exclamations,  and  are  without 
grammatical  relation  to  any  word  in  the  sentence. 

Definition.  —  An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express 
strong  or  sudden  feeling. 

Examples :  — 

Bravo  !  hurrah  !  pish  !  hush  !  ha,  ha  !  alas  !  hail !  lo  !  pshaw  ! 


Conjunctions  and  Interjections. 


73 


Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  words :  — 

Model.  —  Hurrah  !  that  cool  and  fearless  fireman  has  rushed 
into  the  house  and  up  the  burning  stairs. 


Hurrah 


fireman 


has    rushed 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  The  line  representing  the  inter- 
jection is  not  connected  with  the  diagram.  Notice  the  dotted  lines, 
one  standing  for  the  and  which  connects  the  two  word  modifiers ;  the 
other,  for  the  and  connecting  the  two  phrase  modifiers. 


"Written  Parsing. 


N. 

Pro. 

Adj. 

fireman 

the 

house 

that 

stairs 

cool 

fearless 

burning 

Yb. 
has  rushed 


Adv. 


Prep. 

into 
up 


Conj. 

and 
and 


Int. 

hurrah 


Oral  parsing  of  the  conjunction  and  the  interjection. 

The  two  ands  are  conjunctions,  because  they  connect.  The  first 
connects  two  word  modifiers ;  the  second,  two  phrase  modifiers. 
Hurrah  is  an  interjection,  because  it  expresses  a  burst  of  sudden 
feeling. 


74  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


1.  The  small  but  courageous  band  was  finally  overpowered. 

2.  Lightning  and  electricity  were  identified  by  Franklin. 

3.  A  complete  success  or  an  entire  failure  was  anticipated. 
4'.  Good  men  and  bad  men  are  found  in  all  communities. 
5.  Vapors  rise  from  the  ocean  and  fall  upon  the  land. 

G.  The  Eevolutionary  War  began  at  Lexington  and  ended  at 
Yorktown. 

7.  Alas  !  all  hope  has  fled. 

8.  Ah  !  I  am  surprised  at  the  news. 

9.  Oh  !  we  shall  certainly  drown. 

10.  Pshaw  !  you  are  dreaming. 

11.  Hurrah  !  the  field  is  won. 

Were  identified  in  2  is  asserted  of  two  things  ;  rise  and 
fall  in  5,  of  two  or  more.  Was  anticipated  in  3  is  asserted 
of  only  one  thing,  —  success  or  failure,  —  and  has  fled  in 
7,  of  only  one. 

Singular  means  one,  plural  means  more  than  one,  and 
agreement  means  that  plural  subjects  have  plural  verbs, 
and  subjects  in  the  singular  have  verbs  in  the  singular. 
Two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  connected  by  and 
and  naming  different  things  make  a  plural  subject;  and 
two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  connected  by  or,  nor, 
either  ...  or,  neither  .  .  .  nor  make  a  subject  in  the 
singular. 

The  adjectives  each,  every,  and  no,  belonging  to  nouns 
in  the  singular,  show  that  the  things  named  are  taken 
separately,  and  that  the  verb  must  be  in  the  singular. 

Remembering  now  that  nouns  with  s-ending  are  plural 


Conjunctions  and  Interjections.  75 


and  that  verbs  with  s-ending  are  singular,  justify  the 
italicized  verb-forms  in  these  sentences :  — 

1.  Each  word  and  gesture  was  suited  to  the  thought. 

2.  In  the  death  of  Franklin,  a  philosopher  and  statesman  was 
lost  to  the  world. 

3.  Beauty  and  utility  are  combined  in  nature. 

4.  Either  beauty  or  utility  appears  in  every  natural  object. 

5.  Here  is  neither  beauty  nor  utility. 

6.  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

7.  Wisdom  and  prudence  dwell  with  the  lowly  man. 

8.  Does  either  landlord  or  tenant  profit  by  this  bill  1 

9.  Neither  landlords  nor  tenants  profit  by  this  bill. 

1 0.  Every  fly,  bee,  beetle,  and  butterfly  is  provided  with  six  feet. 

11.  That  desperate  robber  and  murderer  was  finally  secured. 

12.  Every  bud,  leaf,  and  blade  of  grass  rejoices  after  the  warm  rain. 

1 3.  That  desperate  robber  and  that  murderer  were  finally  secured. 

14.  The  builder  and  owner  of  the  yacht  has  sailed  from  Liverpool. 

15.  The  builder  and  the  owner  of  the  yacht  have  sailed  from 
Liverpool. 

16.  A  lame  and  blind  man  ivas  provided  with  food  and  lodging. 

17.  A  lame  and  a  blind  man  were  provided  with  food  and  lodging. 

18.  No  dew,  no  rain,  no  cloud  comes  to  the  relief  of  the  parched 
earth. 

Select  the  sentences  with  subjects  in  the  singular  con- 
nected by  and,  naming  (1)  different  things,  and  (2)  the 
same  thing;  (3)  connected  by  or,  nor,  either  .  .  .  or, 
neither  .  .  .  nor;  and  (4)  modified  by  each,  every,  and 
no.  Point  out  the  effect  of  repeating  that,  the,  or  a  in 
13,  15,  and  17. 


76  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


1.  Neither  John  nor  his  sisters  ivere  there. 

2.  Action,  and  not  words,  is  needed. 

3.  Bread  and  milk  is  good  food. 

4.  The  committee  are  unable  to  agree  on  their  report. 

5.  The  committee  has  made  its  report. 

Pupils  will  see,  in  examples  like  1  above,  that  the  verb 
agrees  with  its  nearest  subject,  and  that  the  plural  subject 
is  usually  placed  next  the  verb ;  in  examples  like  2,  that 
the  verb  agrees  with  the  affirmative  subject,  another  verb 
being  understood  with  the  negative  subject;  that  in  3, 
bread  and  milk  represents  one  article  of  food ;  and  that 
in  4,  the  individuals  of  the  committee  are  thought  of ; 
while  in  5,  the  committee  as  a  whole  is  •  thought  of.  In 
4  and  5,  the  agreement  of  the  pronoun  also  may  be  noted. 
Pronouns  may  be  introduced  into  many  of  the  preceding 
exercises  and  the  pupils  led  to  apply  to  the  agreement  of 
the  pronoun  with  its  antecedent  what  has  been  learned 
of  the  agreement  of  the  verb  with  its  subject.  Let  the 
pupils  determine  why  the  following  connected  subjects 
are  arranged  in  the  proper  order :  — 

You  and  I  are  invited.  You  and  Mary  are  invited. 

Mary  and  I  are  invited.  You  and  Mary  and  I  are  invited. 


LESSON  37. 
PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITAL  LETTEKS. 
Comma — Rule. — Phrases  that  are  placed  out  of  their  nat- 
ural order  and  made  emphatic,  or  that  are  loosely  connected 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 


Punctuation  and  Capital   Letters.  77 


Punctuate  the  following  sentences  :  — 

Model.  —  The  cable,  after  many  failures,  was  successfully  laid. 

Upon  the  platform  'twixt  eleven  and  twelve  I'll  visit  you. 
To  me  this  place  is  endeared  by  many  associations. 
Your  answers  with  few  exceptions  have  been  correctly  given. 
In  English  much  depends  on  the  placing  of  phrases. 

Comma  —  Rule. — Words  or  phrases  connected  by  conjunctions 

are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  comma  unless  all  the 
conjunctions  are  expressed. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  :  — 

Model.  —  Csesar  came,  saw,  and  conquered. 

Caesar  came  and  saw  and  conquered. 

He  traveled  in  England,  in  Scotland,  and  in  Ireland. 

Tell  why  the  comma  is  used  in  the  first  and  third  sen- 
tences but  not  in  the  second. 

A  brave  prudent  and  honorable  man  was  chosen. 
Augustus  Tiberius  Nero  and  Vespasian  were  Koman  emperors. 
Through  rainy  weather  across  a  wild  country  over  muddy  roads  after 
a  long  ride  we  came  to  the  end  of  our  journey. 

Period  and  Capital  Letter  —  Pule.  —  Abbreviations  gen- 
erally begin  with  capital  letters  and  are  always  followed  by 
the  period. 

Correct  the  following  errors,  and  (see  list  at  the  end 
of  the  book)  tell  what  these  abbreviations  stand  for :  — 

Model.  —Mr.,  Esq.,  N.  T.,  P.M. 


78  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


gen,  a  m,  mrs,  no,  u  s  a,  n  e,  eng,  p  o,  rev,  prof,  dr,  gram,  capt, 
col,  co,  va,  conn,  feb,  n  o,  n,  oct,  pres,  sat,  vt,  apr,  ky,  a  d,  gov,  wed, 
s,  w,  treas,  maj,  sec,  geo,  hon. 

Pick  out  from  the  list  of  abbreviations  a  score  of  the 
most  common  ones  that  do  not  begin  with  capital  letters, 
and  tell  what  they  stand  for. 

Exclamation  Point  —  Pule. — All  exclamatory  expressions 
must  be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Punctuate  the  following  expressions :  — 

Model.  —  Ah!  Oh!  Zounds!  Stop  pinching ! 

Pshaw,  whew,  alas,  ho  Tom,  hallo  Sir,  good-by,  welcome. 


LESSON   38. 
COMPOSITION. 


Write  predicates  for  the  following  compound  sub- 
jects: — 

Snow  and  hail ;  leaves  and  branches ;  a  soldier  or  a  sailor ;  London 
and  Paris. 

Write  compound  predicates  for  the  following  sub- 
jects:— 

The  sun ;  water ;  fish  ;  steamboats ;  soap ;  farmers ;  fences ;  clothes. 

Write  subjects  for  the  following  compound  predicates:  — 

Live,  feel,  and  grow ;  judges  and  rewards ;  owes  and  pays ;  inhale 
and  exhale ;  expand  and  contract ;  flutters  and  alights ;  fly,  buzz,  and 
sting ;  restrain  or  punish. 


Complements.  79 


Write  compound  subjects  before  the  following  predi- 
cates :  — 

May  be  seen ;  roar ;  will  be  appointed ;  have  flown ;  has  been 
recommended. 

Write  compound  predicates  after  the  following  com- 
pound subjects:  — 

Boys,  frogs,  and  horses ;  wood,  coal,  and  peat ;  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire ;  Concord,  Lexington,  and  Bunker  Hill ;  pins,  tacks,  and 
needles. 

Write  compound  subjects  before  the  following  com- 
pound predicates : — 

Throb  and  ache;  were  tried,  condemned,  and  hanged;  eat,  sleep, 
and  dress. 

Choose  your  own  material  and  write  five  sentences, 
each  having  a  compound  subject  and  a  compound  predi- 
cate. 

LESSON  39. 
COMPLEMENTS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  When  we  say,  "  The  sun 
gives"  we  express  no  complete  thought.  The  subject  sun 
is  complete,  but  the  predicate  gives  does  not  make  a  com- 
plete assertion.  When  we  say,  "  The  sun  gives  light"  we 
do  utter  a  complete  thought.  The  predicate  gives  is  com- 
pleted by  the  word  light.  Whatever  fills  out,  or  completes, 
we  call  a  Complement.     We  will  therefore  call  light  the 


80  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


complement  of  the  predicate.  As  light  completes  the 
predicate  by  naming  the  thing  acted  upon,  we  call  it 
the  Object  Complement. 

Expressions  like  the  following  may  be  written  on  the 
board,  and  by  a  series  of  questions  the  pupils  may  be 
made  to  dwell  upon  these  facts  till  they  are  thoroughly 
understood :  — 

The  officer  arrested ;  the  boy  found : 

Charles  saw ;  coopers  make . 

Besides  verbs  requiring  object  complements,  there  are 
those  that  do  not  make  complete  sense  without  the  aid  of 
a  complement  of  another  kind. 

A  complete  predicate  does  the  asserting  and  expresses 
what  is  asserted.  In  the  sentence,  "Armies  march"  march 
is  a  complete  predicate,  for  it  does  the  asserting  and  ex- 
presses what  is  asserted;  viz.,  marching.  In  the  phrase, 
armies  marching,  marching  expresses  the  act  denoted  by 
march,  but  it  asserts  nothing.  In  the  sentence,  "  Chalk  is 
white"  is  does  the  asserting,  but  it  does  not  express  what 
is  asserted.  We  do  not  wish  to  assert  merely  that  chalk 
is  or  exists.  What  we  wish  to  assert  of  chalk  is  the 
quality  expressed  by  the  adjective  white.  As  white  ex- 
presses a  quality  or  attribute,  we  may  call  it  an  Attribute 
Complement. 

Using  expressions  like  the  following,  let  the  facts  given 
above  be  drawn  from  the  class  by  means  of  questions :  — 
Grass  growing ;  grass  grows  ;  green  grass  ;  grass  is  green. 


Complements.  81 


Definition.  —  The  Object  Complement  of  a  sentence  completes- 
the  predicate,  and  names  that  which  receives  the  act. 

Definition. — The  Attribute  Complement  of  a  sentence  com- 
pletes the  predicate  and  belongs  to  the  subject. 

The  complement   with  all   its   modifiers  is  called   the 
Modified  Complement. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
Model. — Fulton  invented  the  first  steamboat. 

JFulton      ,     invented     x     steamboat 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram. — You  will  see  that  the  line  stand- 
ing for  the  object  complement  is  a  continuation  of  the  predicate  line, 
and  that  the  little  vertical  line  only  touches  this  without  cutting  it. 

Oral  Analysis. — Fulton  and  invented,  as  before.  Steamboat  is 
the  object  complement,  because  it  completes  the  predicate,  and  names 
that  which  receives  the  act.  The  and  first,  as  before.  The  first 
steamboat  is  the  modified  complement. 

1.  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon. 

2.  Morse  invented  the  telegraph. 

3.  Ericsson  built  the  Monitor. 

4.  Hume  wrote  a  history. 

5.  Morn  purples  the  east. 

6.  Antony  beheaded  Cicero. 


Model.  —  Gold  is  malleable. 

Gold        ,         is  \  maUealile 


82  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


In  this  diagram,  the  line  standing  for  the  attribute  complement, 
like  the  object  line,  is  a  continuation  of  the  predicate  line;  but  notice 
the  difference  in  the  little  mark  separating  the  incomplete1  predicate 
from  the  complement. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  Gold  and  is,  as  before.  Malleable  is  the  attri- 
bute complement,  because  it  completes  the  predicate,  and  expresses  a 
quality  belonging  to  gold. 

7.  Pure  water  is  tasteless. 

8.  The  hare  is  timid. 

9.  Fawns  are  graceful. 

10.  This  peach  is  delicious. 

11.  He  was  extremely  prodigal. 

12.  The  valley  of  the  Mississippi  is  very  fertile. 


LESSON   40. 
ERRORS   IN   THE   USE   OF  MODIFIERS. 

Caution.  —  Place  adverbs  where  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  words  they  modify. 
Correct  these  errors  :  — 

I  only  bring  forward  a  few  things. 
Hath  the  Lord  only2  spoken  by  Moses? 
We  merely  speak  of  numbers. 
The  Chinese  chiefly  live  upon  rice. 

1  Hereafter  we  shall  call  the  verb  the  predicate ;  but,  when  followed  by 
a  complement,  it  must  be  regarded  as  an  incomplete  predicate. 

2  Adverbs  sometimes  modify  phrases. 


Errors  in  the  Use  of  Modifiers.  83 


Caution.  —  In  placing  the  adverb,  regard  must  be  had 
to  the  sound  of  the  sentence. 
Correct  these  errors :  — 

We  always  should  do  our  duty. 
The  times  have  changed  surely. 
The  work  will  be  never  finished. 
He  must  have  certainly  been  sick. 

Caution.  — Adverbs  must  not  be  used  for  adjectives. 
Correct  these  errors  :  — 

I  feel  badly. 

Marble  feels  coldly. 

She  looks  nicely. 

It  was  sold  cheaply. 

It  appears  still  more  plainly. 

That  sounds  harshly. 

I  arrived  at  home  safely. 

Caution.  —  Adjectives  must  not  be  used  for  adverbs. 
Correct  these  errors :  — 

The  bells  ring  merry. 

The  curtain  hangs  graceful. 

That  is  a  decided  weak  point. 

Speak  no  coarser  than  usual. 

These  are  the  words  nearest  connected. 

Talk  slow  and  distinct. 

She  is  a  remarkable  pretty  girl. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  an  adjective  comple- 
ment from  an  adverb  modifier.  We  offer  the  following 
assistance :  — 


84  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


"  Mary  arrived  safe"  As  we  here  wish  to  tell  the  condition  of 
Mary  on  her  arrival,  and  not  the  manner  of  her  arriving,  we  use  safe, 
not  safely.  "My  head  feels  bad"  (is  in  a  bad  condition,  as  per- 
ceived by  the  sense  of  feeling).  "  The  sun  shines  bright "  (is  bright 
—  quality  —  as  perceived  by  its  shining). 

You  must  determine  whether  you  wish  to  tell  the  quality 
of  the  thing  named  or  the  manner  of  the  action. 

When  the  idea  of  being  is  prominent  in  the  verb,  as  in 
the  examples  above,  you  see  that  the  adjective,  and  not 
the  adverb,  follows. 

Show  that  the  following  adjectives  and  adverbs  are 
used  correctly :  — 

1.  I  feel  sad. 

2.  I  feel  deeply. 

3.  I  feel  miserable. 

4.  He  appeared  prompt  and  willing. 

5.  He  appeared  promptly  and  willingly. 

6.  She  looks  beautiful. 

7.  She  sings  beautifully. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  conjunction?  What  is  an  interjection?  Give  two 
rules  for  the  use  of  the  comma  (Lesson  37).  What  is  the  rule  for 
writing  abbreviations  ?  What  is  the  rule  for  the  exclamation  point  ? 
What  is  an  object  complement?  What  is  an  attribute  complement? 
Illustrate  both.  What  are  the  cautions  for  the  position  of  the 
adverb?  What  are  the  cautions  for  the  use  of  the  adverb  and 
the  adjective?  Tell  when  we  use  the  adjective  and  wher  we  use 
tl:3  adverb. 


Sentences  and  Paragraphs.  85 


Composition  of  Sentences  and  of  Paragraphs, 
selection  from  habberton "  helen's  babies." 

The  whistles  completed,  I  was  marched  with  music  to  the  place 
where  the  "  Jacks  "  grew.  It  was  just  such  a  place  as  boys  delight 
in  —  low,  damp,  and  boggy,  with  a  brook  hidden  away  under  over- 
hanging ferns  and  grasses. 

1.  The  children  knew  by  sight  the  plant  that  bore  the  "  Jacks," 
and  every  discovery  was  announced  by  a  piercing  shriek  of  delight. 
2.  At  first  I  looked  hurriedly  toward  the  brook  as  each  yell  clove  the 
air ;  but,  as  I  became  accustomed  to  it,  my  attention  was  diverted  by 
some  exquisite  ferns.  3.  Suddenly,  however,  a  succession  of  shrieks 
announced  that  something  was  wrong,  and  across  a  large  fern  I  saw  a 
small  face  in  a  great  deal  of  agony.  4.  Budge  was  hurrying  to  the 
relief  of  his  brother,  and  was  soon  as  deeply  embedded  as  Toddie  was 
in  the  rich,  black  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  brook.  5.  I  dashed  to 
the  rescue,  stood  astride  the  brook,  and  offered  a  hand  to  each  boy, 
when  a  treacherous  tuft  of  grass  gave  way,  and,  with  a  glorious 
splash,  I  went  in  myself. 

This  accident  turned  Toddie's  sorrow  to  laughter,  but  I  can't  say 
I  made  light  of  my  misfortune  on  that  account.  To  fall  into  clear 
water  is  not  pleasant,  even  when  one  is  trout-fishing ;  but  to  be  clad 
in  white  trousers  and  suddenly  drop  nearly  knee-deep  into  the  lap  of 
mother  earth  is  quite  a  different  thing. 

I  hastily  picked  up  the  children  and  threw  them  upon  the  bank, 
and  then  strode  off  and  tried  to  shake  myself,  as  I  have  seen  a  New- 
foundland dog  do.  The  shake  was  not  a  success  —  it  caused  my  trou- 
sers' legs  to  flap  dismally  about  my  ankles,  and  sent  the  streams  of 
treacherous  ooze  trickling  down  into  my  shoes.  My  hat,  of  drab  felt, 
had  fallen  off  by  the  brookside,  and  been  plentifully  spattered  as  I 
got  out. 


86 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


"I  Rushed  to  the  Rescue." 


Sentences  and  Paragraphs.  87 


The  Uses  of  "Words  and  Groups  of  Words.  —  We  will  put  the 
first  paragraph  above  into  single  sentences. 

1.  The  whistles  completed,  we  were  marched  with  music  to  the 
place.  2.  The  "  Jacks  "  grew  in  this  place.  3.  It  was  a  place  low, 
damp,  and  boggy,  with  a  brook  hidden  away  under  overhanging  ferns 
and  grasses.     4.    Boys  delight  in  such  a  place. 

Find  the  subject  noun  (or  pronoun)  and  the  predicate  verb  in  each 
of  the  four  sentences  above.  Does  the  whistles  completed  make  com- 
plete sense  ?  You  learned  in  Lesson  1 6  that  some  forms  of  the  verb 
do  not  assert  —  cannot  be  predicates.  Does  brook  hidden,  in  3,  con- 
tain a  predicate  ?  What  can  you  say  of  hidden  ?  Find  a  noun  in  3 
used  to  complete  the  predicate  and  make  the  meaning  of  the  subject 
plainer.  What  group  of  adjectives  modifies  place  f  Tell  why  these 
three  adjectives  are  separated  by  commas.  What  long  phrase  de- 
scribes place? 

Find  the  first  verb  in  the  second  paragraph  of  the  selection.  What 
is  the  object  complement  of  this  verb?  TJiat  bore  the  "Jacks"  does 
what?  The  pronoun  that  stands  for  plant.  The  plant  bore  the 
H  Jacks"  standing  by  itself,  is  a  complete  sentence ;  but  by  using 
that  for  plant  tne  whole  expression  is  made  to  do  the  work  of  an 
adjective.  What  conjunction  joins  on  another  expression  that  by 
itself  would  make  a  complete  sentence?  What  are  the  subject  and 
the  predicate  of  this  added  sentence  ?  By  a  piercing  shriek  of  delight 
does  what  ?  Of  what  use  are  the  phrases  at  first  and  toward  the 
brook  in  sentence  2  ?  What  group  of  words  is  joined  to  looked  to 
tell  on  what  occasion  or  how  often  ?  Find  in  this  group  a  subject,  a 
predicate,  and  an  object  complement.  What  connects  this  group  to 
looked  f  What  two  sentences  does  but  here  bring  together  ?  Does 
the  semicolon  show  that  this  connection  is  close  ?  Point  out  what 
you  think  to  be  the  leading  subject  and  the  leading  verb  after  but. 
By  some  exquisite  ferns  is  ioined  to  what  ?     What  group  of  worda 


88  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


goes  with  was  diverted  to  tell  when  ?  Find  in  this  group  a  subject, 
a  predicate,  and  an  attribute  complement.  Point  out  in  the  first 
part  of  3  the  leading  subject  and  its  verb.  What  does  suddenly  go 
with  ?  What  does  of  shrieks  modify  2  However  is  loosely  thrown  in 
to  carry  the  attention  back  to  what  goes  before.  Notice  the  commas. 
Answer  the  question  made  by  putting  what  after  announced.  In 
this  group  of  words  used  as  object  complement  can  you  find  a  subject, 
a  predicate,  and  a  complement  ?  What  two  sentences  does  and  here 
bring  together  ?  Point  out  the  subject,  the  predicate,  and  the  com- 
plement in  the  second  of  these.  Across  a  large  fern  is  joined  like  an 
adverb  to  what  1  In  a  great  deal  of  agony  modifies  what  1  Find  a 
compound  predicate  in  4.  What  phrase  is  joined  to  icas  embedded 
to  tell  where  ?  The  group  of  words  as  deeply  as  Toddle  was  (em- 
bedded) is  joined  to  what?  Find  in  5  a  compound  predicate  made 
up  of  three  verbs,  one  of  which  has  an  object  complement. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  See  suggestions  with  the  preceding  selection.  If 
our  exercises  on  the  second  paragraph  above  are  found  too  hard,  the  com- 
pound and  complex  sentences  may  be  broken  up  into  single  statements. 

The  Narrative.  —  This  selection  from  "  Helen's  Babies  "  is  a  story 
and  therefore  a  narrative.  But  there  are  some  descriptive  touches  in 
it.  All  stories  must  have  such  touches.  Perhaps  it  is  not  always 
essential  to  distinguish  between  narration  and  description,  but  it  is 
worth  your  while  to  do  it  occasionally.  Try  to  point  out  the  descrip- 
tive parts  in  these  paragraphs.  You  certainly  can  find  a  descriptive 
sentence  in  the  first  paragraph,  and  descriptive  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses  throughout  the  selection.  What  help  to  the  narrative  do 
these  descriptive  touches  give  1 

The  Paragraphs.  —  What  have  you  learned  about  the  sentences 
that  make  up  one  paragraph?  Are  the  paragraphs  more,  or  less, 
closely  related  than  the  sentences  of  each  paragraph  I  Why  ?  Exam- 
ine these  paragraphs  and  see  whether  any  sentences  can  be  changed 


Original  Composition.  Sii 


from  one  paragraph  to  another.  If  you  think  they  can,  give  your 
reason.  Is  the  order  of  these  paragraphs  the  right  one  1  Can  the  order 
anywhere  be  changed  without  throwing  the  story  out  of  joint  ?  Why  ? 
The  General  Topic  and  the  Sub-topics.  —  We  shall  find  that 
every  composition  has  its  general  subject,  and  that  each  paragraph  in 
the  composition  has  its  own  particular  subject.  Let  us  calLthe  sub- 
ject of  the  whole  composition  the  general  topic.  Sub  means  under, 
and  so  let  us  call  the  point  which  each  paragraph  develops  a  sub- 
topic.  In  the  story  above  we  may  find  some  such  outline  as  the 
following  :  — 

AN*  excursion  in  search  of  "jacks." 

1.  The  Place  where  Jacks  grow. 

2.  The  Mishap  to  the  Excursionists. 

3.  The  Uncle  takes  his  Seriously. 

4.  His  Attempt  at  Repairs. 

Do  you  think  that  such  a  framework  helps  a  writer  to  tell  his 
story?  Do  you  not  think  that  each  sub-topic  must  suggest  some 
thoughts  that  the  general  topic  alone  would  not  suggest?  If  you 
keep  clearly  before  you  the  sub- topic  of  your  paragraph,  what  effect 
do  you  think  it  will  have  on  the  thoughts  and  the  sentences  of  that 
paragraph?  With  a  good  framework  before  you,  must  not  your 
story  move  along  in  an  orderly  way  from  a  beginning  to  an  end  1 
Have  you  ever  heard  stories  badly  told  ?    If  so,  what  were  the  faults  1 

Original  Composition. 

Have  you  not  had  some  experience  that  you  can  work  up  into  a 
good  story  ?  If  you  have,  tell  the  story  upon  paper,  making  use  of 
the  instruction  we  have  given  you  in  our  talk  above. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Perhaps  a  reproduction  of  the  story  above  may 
be  profitable. 


90  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON   41. 
THE   POSITION  AND    USE   OF   MODIFIERS. 

Caution.  —  Phrase  modifiers  should  be  placed  as  near  as 
may  be  to  the  words  they  modify. 

Copy  the  following,  and  note  the  arrangement  and  the 
punctuation  of  the  phrases:  — 

(g)  This  place  is  endeared  to  me  by  many  associations. 

(h)  To  me,  this  place  is  endeared  by  many  associations. 

(i)  Your  answers,  with  few  exceptions,  have  been  correctly  given. 

(j)  He  applied  for  the  position,  without  a  recommendation. 

When  two  or  more  phrases  belong  to  the  same  word, 
the  one  most  closely  modifying  it  stands  nearest  to  it. 

In  the  first  sentence  above,  to  me  tells  to  whom  the 
place  is  endeared;  by  many  associations  tells  how  it  is  en- 
deared to  me,  and  is  therefore  placed  after  to  me.  Try 
the  effect  of  placing  to  me  last.  Phrases,  like  adjectives, 
may  be  of  different  rank. 

Notice  that  to  me,  in  Qi)  above,  is  transposed,  and  thus 
made  emphatic,  and  that  it  is  set  off  by  the  comma. 

In  (i),  the  phrase  is  loosely  thrown  in  as  if  it  were  not 
essential,  thus  making  a  break  in  the  sentence.  To  make 
this  apparent  to  the  eye  we  set  the  phrase  off  by  the 
comma. 

Place  the  phrase  of  (i)  in  other  positions,  and  set  it  off. 
When  the  phrase  is  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence,  how  many  commas  do  you  need  to  set  it  off? 
How  many,  when  it  is  in  the  middle  ? 


The  Position  and  Use  of  Modifiers.  91 


Do  you  find  any  choice  in  the  four  positions  of  this 
phrase?  After  having  been  told  that  your  answers  were 
correct,  would  it  be  a  disappointment  to  be  told  that  they 
are  not  all  correct  ?  Is  the  interest  in  a  story  best  kept 
up  by  first  telling  the  important  points  and  then  the  un- 
important particulars  ?  What  then  do  you  think  of  plac- 
ing this  phrase  at  the  end  ? 

What  does  the  last  phrase  of  (/)  modify  ?  Take  out 
the  comma,  and  then  see  whether  there  can  be  any  doubt 
as  to  what  the  phrase  modifies. 

In  the  placing  of  adverbs  and  phrases  great  freedom  is 
often  allowable,  and  the  determining  of  their  best  possible 
position  affords  an  almost  unlimited  opportunity  for  the 
exercise  of  taste  and  judgment. 

Such  questions  as  those  on  (T)  above  may  suggest  a 
mode  of  easy  approach  to  what  Is  usually  relegated  to 
rhetoric.  Let  the  pupils  see  that  phrases  may  be  trans- 
posed for  various  reasons  —  for  emphasis,  as  in  (K)  above; 
for  the  purpose  of  exciting  the  reader's  curiosity  and 
holding  his  attention  till  the  complete  statement  is  made, 
as  in  (t)  above,  or  in,  "  In  the  dead  of  night,  with  a 
chosen  band,  under  the  cover  of  a  truce,  he  approached"; 
and  for  the  sake  of  balancing  the  sentence  by  letting  some 
of  the  modifying  terms  precede,  and  some  follow,  the 
principal  parts;  as,  "  In  1837,  on  the  death  of  William  IV., 
Victoria  succeeded  to  the  throne." 

Pupils  may  note  the  transposed  words  and  phrases  in 


92  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


the   following  sentences,  and  explain  their  office  and  the 
effect  of  the  transposition :  — 

1.  Victories,  indeed,  they  were.       4.    Doubtful  seemed  the  battle. 

2.  Down  came  the  masts.  5.    Wide  open  stood  the  door. 

3.  Here  stands  the  man.  6.    A  mighty  man  is  he. 

7.  That  gale  I  well  remember. 

8.  Behind  her  rode  Lalla  Kookh. 

9.  Blood -red  became  the  sun. 

10.  Louder  waxed  the  applause. 

11.  Him  the  Almighty  Power  hurled  headlong. 

12.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

13.  Into  the  valley  of  death  rode  the  six  hundred. 

14.  So  died  the  great  Columbus  of  the  skies. 

15.  iEneas  did,  from  the  flames  of  Troy,  upon  his  shoulders,  the 
old  Anchises  bear. 

16.  Such  a  heart  in  the  breast  of  my  people  beats. 

17.  The  great  fire  up  the  deep  and  wide  chimney  roared. 

18.  Ease  and  grace  in  writing  are,  of  all  the  acquisitions  made  in 
school,  the  most  difficult  and  valuable. 

Read  the  following  sentences  in  the  transposed  order, 
and  explain  the  effect  of  the  change:  — 

19.  He  could  not  avoid  it.  22.    He  ended  his  tale  here. 

20.  He  would  not  escape.  23.    It  stands  written  so. 

21.  I  must  go.  24.    She  seemed  young  and  sad. 

25.  I  will  make  one  more  effort  to  save  you. 

26.  My  regrets  were  bitter  and  unavailing. 

27.  I  came  into  the  world  helpless. 

28.  A  sincere  word  was  never  utterly  lost, 

29.  Catiline  shall  no  longer  plot  her  ruin. 


The  Position  and  Use  of  Modifiers.  93 


Order  of  Words  ix  Questions. 

30.  Who  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence  1 

31.  What  states  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 
'     32.    Whom  did  you  see  ? 

33.  What  is  poetry? 

34.  Which  course  will  you  choose  1 

35.  Why  are  the  days  shorter  in  winter? 

36.  When  was  America  discovered  ? 

37.  Were  you  there? 

38.  Has  the  North  Pole  been  reached  ? 

When  the  interrogative  word  is  subject  or  a  modifier  of 
it,  is  the  order  natural,  or  transposed  ?  See  30  and  31 
above. 

When  the  interrogative  word  is  object  or  attribute  com- 
plement, or  a  modifier  of  either,  what  is  the  order  ?  See 
32,  33,  and  34. 

When  the  interrogative  word  is  an  adverb,  what  is  the 
order  ?     See  35  and  36. 

When  there  is  no  interrogative  word,  what  is  the  order  ? 
See  37  and  38. 

Correct  these  errors :  — 

A  fellow  was  arrested  with  short  hair. 
He  died  and  went  to  his  rest  in  New  York. 

He  is  to  speak  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  the  Academy  of 
Music. 

Report  any  inattention  of  the  waiters  to  the  cashier. 
Some  garments  were  made  for  the  family  of  thick  material. 
The  vessel  was  beautifully  painted  with  a  tall  mast. 


94  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


I  perceived  that  it  had  been  scoured  with  half  an  eye. 
A  house  was  built  by  a  mason  of  brown  stone. 
A  pearl  was  found  by  a  sailor  in  a  shell. 

Punctuate  these  sentences  when  corrected. 

Caution.  —  Care  must  be  taken  to  select  the  right  prepo- 
sition.    For  it,  consult  the  Unabridged  Dictionaries. 
Correct  these  errors :  — 

They  halted  wTith  the  river  on  their  backs. 

The  cat  jumped  on  the  chair. 

He  fell  onto  the  floor. 

He  went  in  the  house. 

Between  each  page. 

He  died  for  thirst. 

This  is  different  to  that. 

The  choice  lies  among  the  three  candidates. 

I  am  angry  at  him. 

Caution.  —  Do  not  use  two  negative,  or  denying,  words 
so  that  one  shall  contradict  the  other,  unless  you  wish  to 
affirm. 

Correct  these  errors :  — 

I  haven't  no  umbrella. 

Correct  by  dropping  either  the  adjective  no  or  the 
adverb   not;   as,  I  have  no  umbrella,  or  I  have   not   an 

umbrella. 

I  didn't  say  nothing. 

I  can't  do  this  in  no  way. 


Analysis  and  Parsing.  95 


No  other  emperor  was  so  wise  nor  powerful. 
Nothing  can  never  be  annihilated. 


LESSON  42. 
ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

1.  Brutus  stabbed  Caesar. 

2.  Man  is  an  animal. 

3.  Washington  captured  Cornwallis. 

4.  Wellington  defeated  Napoleon  at  Waterloo. 

5.  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific  ocean. 

6.  Yulcan  was  a  blacksmith. 

7.  The  summer  has  been  very  rainy. 

8.  Columbus  made  four  voyages  to  the  New  World. 

9.  The  moon  reflects  the  light  of  the  sun. 

10.  The  first  vice  president  of  the  United  States  was  John 
Adams. 

11.  Roger  Williams  was  the  founder  of  Rhode  Island. 

12.  Harvey  discovered  the  circulation  of  blood. 

13.  Diamonds  are  combustible. 

14.  Napoleon  died  a  prisoner,  at  St.  Helena. 

15.  In  1619  the  first  shipload  of  slaves  was  landed  at  Jamestown. 

The  pupil  will  notice"  that  animal,  in  sentence  2,  is  an 
attribute  complement,  though  it  is  not  an  adjective 
expressing  a  quality  belonging  to  man,  but  a  noun  denot- 
ing his  class.     Nouns  then  may  be  attribute  complements. 

The  pupil  will  notice  also  that  some  of  the  object  and 
attribute  complements  above  have  phrase  modifiers. 


96  Graded  Lessons  in  English.. 

LESSON  43. 
COMPOSITION. 

Using  the  following  predicates,  construct  sentences  hav- 
ing subjects,  predicates,  and  object  complements  with  or 
without  modifiers  :  — 

climb ;    hunt ;    command ;   


attacked ;   pursued ;    shall  receive ;  

have  seen ;  love . 

Change  the  following  expressions  into  sentences  by 
asserting  the  qualities  here  assumed.  Use  these  verbs  for 
predicates :  — 

Is,  were,  appears,  may  be,  became,  was,  have  been,  should  have 
been,  is  becoming,  are. 

Model.  —  Heavy  gold  ;  Gold  is  heavy. 

Green  fields ;  sweet  oranges ;  interesting  story ;  brilliant  sunrise ; 
severe  punishment ;  playful  kittens ;  warm  weather ;  pitiful  sight ; 
sour  grapes  ;  amusing  anecdote. 

Prefix  to  the  following  nouns  several  adjectives  express- 
ing assumed  qualities,  and  then  make  complete  sentences 
by  asserting  the  same  qualities  :  — 

white  1  Chalk  is  white. 

Model.  —        brittle  I  chalk.  Chalk  is  brittle. 

soft      J  Chalk  is  soft. 

Gold,  pears,  pens,  lead,  water,  moon,  vase,  rock,  lakes,  summer, 
ocean,  valley. 


Analysfs  and  Parsing. 


97 


Find  your  own  material,  and  build  two  sentences  hav- 
ing object  complements,  and  two  having  attribute 
complements. 


Models.  — 


LESSON  44. 
ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 
Miscellaneous. 
expands 


^Learning   . 


elevates 


\ind 


ITe 


Tcissed    t  Tiim 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  — In  the  first  diagram,  the  two 
lines  standing  for  the  two  parts  of  the  predicate  are  brought  together, 
and  are  followed  by  the  complement  line.  This  shows  that  the  two 
verbs  are  completed  by  the  same  object. 

In  the  second  diagram,  one  of  the  predicate  lines  is  followed  by  a 
complement  line ;  but  the  two  predicate  lines  are  not  united,  for  the 
two  verbs  have  not  a  common  object. 

1.  Learning  expands  and  elevates  the  mind. 

2.  He  ran  forward  and  kissed  him. 

3.  The  earth  and  the  moon  are  planets. 

4.  The  Swiss  scenery  is  picturesque. 

5.  Jefferson  was  chosen  the  third  president  of  the  United  States. 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


6.  Nathan  Hale  died  a  martyr  to  liberty. 

7.  The  man  stood  speechless. 

8.  Labor  disgraces  no  man. 

9.  Aristotle  and  Plato  were  the  most  distinguished  philosophers 
of  antiquity. 

10.  Josephus  wrote  a  history  of  the  Jews. 

11.  This  man  seems  the  leader  of  the  whole  party. 

12.  The  attribute  complement  completes  the  predicate  and  belongs 
to  the  subject. 

13.  Lord  Cornwallis  became  governor  of  Bengal  after  his  disas- 
trous defeat. 

14.  The  multitude  ran  before  him  and  strewed  branches  in  the 
way. 

15.  Peter  Minuits  traded  with  the  Indians,  and  bought  the  whole 
island  of  Manhattan  for  twenty-four  dollars. 

Pick  out  the  phrases  (1)  of  place  and  (2)  of  time  in 
these  sentences. 


LESSON  45. 

ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

Miscellaneous. 

vrise 


Henry  TV ',  was  \       /  simple 


council 


\  manner 8 

cMvdlric     x 


\  field 


^ 


Analysis  and  Parsing.  99 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  In  this  diagram  the  complement 
line  separates  into  three  parts,  to  each  of  which  is  joined  a  phrase 
diagram.  The  line  standing  for  the  word-modifier  is  joined  to  that 
part  of  the  complement  line  which  represents  the  entire  attribute 
complement. 

1.  Henry  IV.,  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  was  very  wise  in  coun- 
cil, simple  in  manners,  and  chivalric  in  the  field. 

2.  Caesar  defeated  Pompey  at  Pharsalia. 

3.  The  diamond  is  the  most  valuable  gem. 

4.  The  Greeks  took  Troy  by  stratagem. 

5.  The  submarine  cable  unites  the  continent  of  America  and  the 
Old  World. 

*6.    The  Gauls  joined  the  army  of  Hannibal. 

7.  Columbus  crossed  the  Atlantic  with  ninety  men,  and  landed 
at  San  Salvador. 

8.  Vulcan  made  arms  for  Achilles. 

9.  Cromwell  gained  at  JSTaseby  a  most  decisive  victory  over  the 
Eoyalists. 

10.  Columbus  was  a  native  of  Genoa. 

11.  God  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb. 

12.  The  morning  hour  has  gold  in  its  mouth. 

13.  The  mill  of  the  gods  grinds  late,  but  grinds  to  powder. 

14.  A  young  farmer  recently  bought  a  yoke  of  oxen,  six  cows,  and 
a  horse. 

15.  America  has  furnished  to  the  world  tobacco,  the  potato,  and 
Indian  corn. 

Pick  out  the  place  and  the  manner  phrases  in  these 
sentences.  What  phrases  can  you  turn  into  adjec- 
tives or  adverbs,  and  what  adjectives  and  adverbs  into 
phrases. 


100  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON  46. 

ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

Miscellaneous. 

Cotton        i      is    raised 

^Egypt 

1            V 

V                                 / 

InUia 

\      \    f» 

United  States 

Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  In  this  diagram  the  line  repre- 
senting the  principal  part  of  the  phrase  separates  into  three  lines. 
This  shows  that  the  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  compound. 
Egypty  India,  and  United  States  are  all  introduced  by  the  same 
preposition  in,  and  have  the  same  relation  to  is  raised. 

1.  Cotton  is  raised  in  Egypt,  India,  and  the  United  States. 

2.  The  navy  of  Hiram  brought  gold  from  Ophir. 

3.  The  career  of  Cromwell  was  short. 

4.  Most  mountain  ranges  run  parallel  with  the  coast. 

5.  Now  swiftly  glides  the  bonny  boat. 

6.  An  able  but  dishonest  judge  presided. 

7.  The  queen  bee  lays  eggs  in  cells  of  three  different  sizes. 

8.  Umbrellas  were  introduced  into  England  from  China. 

9.  The  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America  was  made 
at  Jamestown,  in  1607. 

10.  The  spirit  of  true  religion  is  social,  kind,  and  cheerful. 

11.  The  summits  of  the  Alps  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 


CompositioB?. 


io* 


12  The  months  of  July  and  August  were  named  after  Julius 
Csesar  and  Augustus  Caesar. 

13.  All  the  kings  of  Egypt  are  called,  in  Scripture,  Pharaoh. 

14.  The  bamboo  furnishes  to  the  natives  of  China,  shade,  food, 
houses,  weapons,  and  clothing. 

Notice  that,  in  8,  were  introduced  is  modified  by  the  two 
phrases  into  England  and  jfrom  China.  The  whole  phrase 
into  England  from  China  is,  then,  a  compound  phrase. 

Notice  that,  in  14,  natives,  the  principal  word  of  the 
phrase  to  the  natives,  is  modified  by  another  phrase,  of 
China.  The  whole  phrase  to  the  natives  of  China  is  there- 
fore a  complex  phrase. 

Is  there  another  compound  or  complex  phrase  in  these 
fourteen  sentences  ?  Is  there  one  in  the  fifteen  sentences 
of.  Lesson  45  ?  

LESSON  47. 
COMPOSITION. 

Supply  attribute  complements  to  the  following  expres- 
sions.    See  Caution,  Lesson  40. 

The  marble  feels .  Mary  looks .  The  weather  con- 
tinues   ■ .      The  apple  tastes .      That   lady  appears . 

The  sky  grows .     The  leaves  of  roses  are .     The  under- 
taking was  pronounced  — — . 

Write  a  subject  and  a  predicate  for  each  of  the  follow- 
ing nouns  taken  as  attribute  complements:  — 

Model.  —  Soldier.  —  That  old  man  has  been  a  soldier. 
Plant,  insect,  mineral,  vegetable,  liquid,  gas,  solid,  historian,  poet, 
artist,  traveler,  emperor. 


JL02  Graded  1-essons  in  English. 


Using  the  following  nouns  as  subjects,  build  sentences 
each  having  a  simple  predicate  and  two  or  more  object 
complements :  — 

Congress,  storm,  education,  king,  tiger,  hunter,  Arnold,  shoe- 
makers, lawyers,  merchant. 

Build  three  sentences  on  each  of  the  following  subjects, 
two  of  which  shall  contain  object  complements,  and  the 
third,  an  attribute  complement :  — 

Model.  —  Sun.  —  The  sun  gives  light. 

The  sun  warms  the  earth. 
The  sun  is  a  luminous  body. 

Moon,  oak,  fire,  whisky. 


LESSON  48. 
SUBJECT  OR  COMPLEMENT  MODIFIED  BY  A  PARTICIPLE. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  You  have  learned,  in  the 
preceding  lessons,  that  a  quality  may  be  assumed  as 
belonging  to  a  thing  ;  as,  white  chalk,  or  that  it  may  be 
asserted  of  it;  as,  "Chalk  is  white"  An  action,  also, 
may  be  assumed  as  belonging  to  something  ;  as,  Peter 
turning,  or  it  may  be  asserted;  as,  "Peter  turned."  In 
the  expression,  "Peter,  turning,  said,"  which  word  expresses 
an  action  as  assumed,  and  which  asserts  an  action  ?  Each 
pupil  may  give  an  example  of  an  action  asserted  and  of 
an  action  assumed;  as,  "Corn  grows"  corn  growing; 
"  Geese  gabble,"  geese  gabbling. 


Subject  or  Complement  modified  by  a  Participle.       103 


This  form  of  the  verb,  which  merely  assumes  the  act, 
being,  or  state,  is  called  a  participle. 

When  the  words  growing  and  gabbling  are  placed  before 
the  nouns,  thus:  growing  corn,  gabbling  geese,  they  tell 
simply  the  kind  of  corn  and  the  kind  of  geese,  and  are 
therefore  adjectives. 

When  the  or  some  other  adjective  is  placed  before  these 
words,  and  a  preposition  after  them,  thus :  The  growing  of 
the  corn,  the  gabbling  of  the  geese,  they  are  simply  the 
names  of  actions,  and  are  therefore  nouns. 

Let  each  pupil  give  an  example  of  a  verb  asserting  an 
action,  and  change  it  to  express :  — 

(1)  An  assumed  action;  (2)  A  permanent  quality; 
(3)  The  name  of  an  action. 

Participles  may  be  completed  by  objects  and  attributes. 

ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 
Model.  —  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 
Truth         i       will   rise 


\    earth 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  In  this  diagram,  the  line  standing 
for  the  principal  word  of  the  participial  phrase  is  broken ;  one  part 
slants,  and  the  other  is  horizontal.  This  shows  that  the  participle 
crushed  is  used  like  an  adjective  to  modify  Truth,  and  yet  retains 
the  nature  of  a  verb,  expressing  an  action  received  by  truth. 


104  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  sentence,  because ;   Truth  is  the 

subject,  because ;  ivill  rise  is  the  predicate,  because ;  the 

phrase,-  crushed  to  earth,  is  a  modifier  of  the  subject,  because ; 

crushed  introduces  the  phrase  and  is  the  principal  word  in  it ;  the 
phrase  to  earth  is  a  modifier  of  crushed;  to  introduces  it,  and  earth 
is  the  principal  word  in  it;  again  is  a  modifier  of  the  predicate, 

because .      Truth  crushed  to  earth  is  the  modified  subject,  will 

rise  again  is  the  modified  predicate. 

Parsing.  —  Crushed  is    the    form  of  the  verb  called  participle. 
The  action  expressed  by  it  is  merely  assumed. 

1.  The  mirth  of  Addison  is  genial,  imparting  a  mild   glow  of 
thought. 

2.  The  general,  riding  to  the  front,  led  the  attack. 

3.  The  balloon,  shooting  swiftly  into  the  clouds,  was  soon  lost  to, 
sight. 

4.  "Wealth  acquired  dishonestly  will  prove  a  curse. 

5.  The  sun,  rising,  dispelled  the  mists. 

6.  The  thief,  being  detected,  surrendered  to  the  officer. 
-7.    They  boarded  the  vessel  lying  in  the  harbor. 

8.  The  territory  claimed  by  the  Dutch  was  called  New  Nether- 
lands. 

9.  Washington,    having    crossed    the    Delaware,    attacked    the 
Hessians  stationed  at  Trenton. 

10.  Burgoyne,  having  been  surrounded  at  Saratoga,  surrendered 
to  General  Gates. 

11.  Pocahontas  was  married  to  a  young  Englishman  named  John 
Eolfe. 

12.  A  shrug  of  the  shoulders,  translated  into  words,  loses  much 
force. 

13.  The  armies  of  England,  mustered  for  the  battles  of  Europe, 
do  not  awaken  sincere  admiration. 


The  Infinitive  Phrase.  105 


Note  that  the  participle,  like  the  predicate  verb,  may 
consist  of  two  or  more  words. 

Note,  too,  that  the  participle,  like  the  adjective,  may- 
belong  to  a  noun  complement. 


LESSON  49. 
THE  INFINITIVE  PHRASE. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  There  is  another  form  of 
the  verb  which,  like  the  participle,  cannot  be  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence,  for  it  cannot  assert;  as,  "She  went  out  to 
.see  a  friend;"  "To  lie  is  a  disgrace."  As  this  form  of 
the  verb  expresses  the  action,  being,  or  state  in  a  general 
manner,  without  limiting  it  directly  to  a  subject,  it  is 
called  an  Infinitive,  which  means  without  limit.  The 
infinitive  generally  follows  to;  as,  to  ivalk,  to  sleep. 

Let  each  pupil  give  an  infinitive. 

The  infinitive  and  the  preposition  to  constitute  an 
Infinitive  phrase,  which  may  be  employed  in  several  ways. 

T. — "  I  have  a  duty  to  perform"  The  infinitive 
phrase  modifies  what?  P. — The  noun  duty.  T. — It 
then  performs  the  office  of  what?  P.  —  Of  an  adjective 
modifier. 

T. — -UI  come  to  hear"  The  infinitive  phrase  modifies 
what?  P.  —  The  verb  come.  T.  —  What  office  then  does 
it  perform  ?     P. — That  of  an  adverb  modifier. 


10G  Graded  Lessons  in   English. 


T.  —  "To  lie  is  base."  What  is  base?  P.— To  lie. 
T. — uHe  attempted  to  speak."  What  did  he  attempt? 
P. — To  speak.  T.  —  To  lie  is  a  subject,  and  to  speak  is  an 
object.  What  part  of  speech  is  used  as  subject  and 
object?     P.  —  The  noun. 

T. — The  Infinitive  phrase  is  used  as  an  adjective,  an 
adverb,  and  a  noun. 

Infinitives  may  be  completed  by  objects  and  attributes. 

Analysts  and  Parsing. 
Model. — David  hasted  to  meet  Goliath. 
David        ,       liasted 

\      meet      |      Goliath 


Analysis  of  the  Infinitive  Phrase.  —  To  introduces  the  phrase ; 
meet,  completed  by  the  object  Goliath,  is  the  principal  part. 

Parsing  of  the  Phrase.  —  To  is  a  preposition,  because ;  meet 

is  a  verb,  because ;  Goliath  is  a  noun,  because . 

1.  I  come  not  here  to  talk. 

2.  I  rejoice  to  hear  it. 

3.  A  desire  to  excel  leads  to  eminence. 

4.  Dr.  Franklin  was  sent  to  France  to  solicit  aid  for  the  colonies. 

5.  To  retreat  was  impossible. 

To  here  merely  introduces  the  infinitive  phrase. 


retreaf 

,     was  \  impossible 


Position  and  Punctuation  of  Participial  Phrase.        107 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram. — As  this  phrase  subject  cannot,  in 
its  proper  form,  be  written  on  the  subject  line,  it  is  placed  above, 
and,  by  means  of  a  support,  the  phrase  diagram  is  made  to  rest  on 
the  subject  line.  The  phrase  complement  may  be  diagramed  in  a 
similar  way,  and  made  to  rest  on  the  complement  line. 

6.  The  hands  refuse  to  labor. 

7.  To  live  is  not  all  of  life. 

8.  The  Puritans  desired  to  obtain  religious  freedom. 

9.  The  Romans,   having  conquered  the  world,  were  unable  to 
conquer  themselves. 

10.  Narvaez  sailed  from  Cuba  to  conquer  Florida. 

11.  Some  savages  of  America  and  Africa  love  to  wear  rings  in  the 
nose. 

12.  Andrew  Jackson,  elected  to  succeed  J.  Q.  Adams,  was  inaugu- 
rated in  1829.  

LESSON   50. 
POSITION  AND  PUNCTUATION  OF  THE  PARTICIPIAL  PHRASE. 
See  Lesson  37,  and  Caution  1  in  Lesson  41.  *  Correct 
these  sentences,  and  punctuate  them  when  corrected :  — 

A  house  was  built  for  a  clergyman  having  seven  gables. 
The  old  man  struck  the  saucy  boy  raising  a  gold-headed  cane. 
We  saw  a  marble  bust  of  Sir  W.  Scott  entering  the  vestibule. 
Here  is  news  from  a  neighbor  boiled  down. 
I  found  a  cent  walking  over  the  bridge. 

Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific  ocean  climbing  to  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain. 

Punctuate  the  following  exercises  :  — 

Cradled  in  the  camp  Napoleon  was  the  darling  of  the  army. 
Having  approved  of  the  plan  the  king  put  it  into  execution. 


108  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Satan  incensed  with  indignation  stood  unterrified. 
My  friend  seeing  me  in  need  offered  his  services. 
James  being  weary  with  his  journey  sat  down  on  the  wall. 
The  owl  hid  in  the  tree  hooted  through  the  night. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

What  binds  together  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph !  What  is  the 
general  topic?  What  are  the  sub-topics?  What  is  a  framework? 
How  is  it  formed  ?     Of  what  help  would  it  be  to  the  writer  ? 

Give  the  Caution  relating  to  the  position  of  the  phrase  modifier. 
If  phrases  are  of  different  rank,  which  should  stand  nearest  to  the 
word  they  modify  ?  Illustrate.  Why  are  phrases  transposed  ?  Illus- 
trate their  transposition  for  various  reasons.  What  sentences  of  1—19, 
Lesson  41,  contain  transposed  prepositional  phrases?  What  ones 
contain  transposed  adjectives?  Adverbs?  Nouns  or  pronouns  used 
as  objects?  As  attribute  complements?  Wliat  did  you  transpose  in 
19-29?  What  is  transposed  in  sentences  that  ask  questions  ?  Give 
the  Caution  relating  to  the  choice  of  prepositions.  That  relating  to 
double  negatives.  Give  examples  of  errors.  What  is  a  compound 
phrase  ?  A  complex  ?  What  is  a  participle  ?  When  may  it  become 
an  adjective?  It  may  be  completed  by  what  ?  What  is  an  infinitive? 
An  infinitive  phrase?  What  offices  may  such  a  phrase  perform? 
Illustrate.-  The  infinitive  may  be  completed  by  what  ?  The  to  of  an 
infinitive  phrase  may  sometimes  do  what  only  ? 

Composition  of  Sentences  and  of  Paragraphs. 

selection  from  george  eliot. 

And  this  is  Dorlcote  Mill.  I  must  stand  a  minute  or  two  here  on 
the  bridge  and  look  at  it,  though  the  clouds  are  threatening  and  it  is 
far  on  in  the  afternoon.  Even  in  this  leafless  time  of  departing  Feb- 
ruary, it  is  pleasant  to  look  at.     Perhaps  the  chill,  damp  season  adds 


Composition. 


109 


Dorlcote  Mill.' 


110  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


a  charm  to  the  trimly  kept  building,  as  old  as  the  elms  and  chestnuts 
that  shelter  it  from  the  northern  blast. 

The  stream  is  brimful  now,  and  half  drowns  the  grassy  fringe  in 
front  of  the  house.  As  I  look  at  the  stream,  the  vivid  grass,  the 
delicate,  bright-green  softening  the  outline  of  the  great  trunks  and 
branches  that  gleam  from  under  the  bare  purple  boughs,  I  am  in  love 
with  moistness,  and  envy  the  white  ducks  that  are  dipping  their 
heads  far  into  the  water,  unmindful  of  the  awkward  appearance  they 
make  in  the  drier  world  above. 

1.  And  now  there  is  the  huge  covered  wagon,  coming  home  with 
sacks  of  grain.  2.  That  honest  wagoner  is  thinking  of  his  dinner, 
which  is  getting  sadly  dry  in  the  oven  at  this  late  hour ;  but  he  will 
not  touch  it  till  he  has  fed  his  horses  —  the  strong,  submissive  beasts, 
who,  I  fancy,  are  looking  mild  reproach  at  him  from  between  their 
blinkers,  that  he  should  crack  his  whip  at  them  in  that  awful  manner, 
as  if  they  needed  such  a  hint !  3.  See  how  they  stretch  their  shoul- 
ders up  the  slope  toward  the  bridge,  with  all  the  more  energy  because 
they  are  so  near  home.  4.  Look  at  their  grand,  shaggy  feet,  that 
seem  to  grasp  the  firm  earth,  at  the  patient  strength  of  their  necks 
bowed  under  the  heavy  collar,  at  the  mighty  muscles  of  their  struggling 
haunches.  5.  I  should  like  to  see  them,  with  their  moist  necks  freed 
from  the  harness,  dipping  their  eager  nostrils  into  the  pond. 

The  Uses  of  "Words  and  Groups  of  Words.  —  Notice  that  in 
sentence  1,  third  paragraph,  the  subject  is  placed  after  the  predicate. 
Tell  what  now  and  there  do.  Coming  home  with  sacks  of  grain 
does  what  ?  Does  coming  express  action  ?  Does  -  it  assert  action  I 
Whatis.it?  What  does  home  do?  Put  its  before  home  and  then 
read  the  whole  phrase.  What  other  change  do  you  find  necessary  ? 
A  noun  is  sometimes  used  alone  to  do  the  work  of  an  adverb  phrase, 
the  preposition  being  omitted.  What  is  the  office  of  minute  in  the 
second  sentence  of  the  first  paragraph  ?     What  preposition  could  be 


Composition.  Ill 


put  in  ?  In  2,  third  paragraph,  the  pronoun  which  stands  for  dinner. 
Eead  the  sentence,  using  the  noun  instead  of  the  pronoun.  Have  you 
now  two  sentences,  or  one  ?  You  see  that  which  not  only  stands  for 
dinner,  but  it  joins  on  a  sentence  so  as  to  make  it  describe  the  din- 
ner. What  does  till  he  has  fed  his  horses  do?  Omitting  till,  would 
this  group  of  words  be  a  sentence?  What,  then,  joins  this  group, 
and  makes  it  do  the  work  of  an  adverb  ?  Notice  the  dash  after 
horses.  The*writer  here  breaks  off  rather  suddenly  and  begins  again, 
using  beasts  instead  of  horses.  To  beasts  are  added  many  descrip- 
tive words.  You  will  learn  that  this  noun  beasts  added  to  the  noun 
horses  is  called  an  explanatory  modifier.  Notice  that  I  fancy  is 
thrown  in  loosely  or  independently  and  is  set  off  by  commas.  All 
the  other  words  beginning  with  who  and  ending  with  hint  are  joined 
by  who  to  beasts.  Notice  that  the  writer  makes  these  beasts  think 
like  persons,  and  so  uses  who  instead  of  which  or  that.  Do  we  ordi- 
narily speak  of  looking  anything?  In  who  are  looking  reproach, 
what  is  the  object  complement  of  are  looking?  What  long  group  of 
words  made  up  of  two  sentences  tells  why  the  beasts  are  looking 
reproach  ?  Eead  separately  the  main  divisions  of  2.  What  conjunc- 
tion connects  these?  Is  one  of  these  divisions  itself  divided  into 
parts  by  commas  ?  Should  then  some  mark  of  wider  separation  be 
put  between  the  main  divisions  of  2  ?  To  build  so  long  a  sentence  as 
2  is  venturesome.  We  advise  young  writers  not  to  make  such  at- 
tempts. It  is  hard  to  write  very  long  sentences  and  keep  the  mean- 
ing clear.  In  3  the  subject  of  see  is  you,  which  is  generally  omitted 
in  a  command.  You  are  here  told  to  see  what  ?  Break  this  long  object 
complement  up  into  two  sentences.  What  do  the  horses  stretch? 
Where  do  they  stretch  their  shoulders  ?  How  do  they  stretch  ?  Why 
do  they  stretch  with  more  energy  ?  What  is  the  subject  of  look  in 
4  ?  The  phrase  beginning  with  at  and  ending  with  earth  does  what  ? 
Find  two  other  long  phrases  introduced  by  at  and  tell  what  they  do. 


112  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


That  seem  to  grasp  the  firm  earth  goes  with  what?  Put  the  noun 
feet  in  place  of  the  pronoun  that  and  make  a  separate  sentence  of 
this  group.  What  word,  then,  makes  an  adjective  modifier  of  this 
sentence  and  joins  it  to  feet t  Does  to  grasp  assert  action?  What 
do  you  call  it?  It  is  here  used  as  attribute  complement.  Bowed 
tinder  the  heavy  collar  describes  what  ?  Does  bowed  assert  action  1 
What  do  you  call  it  ? 

To  the  Teacher.  — If  time  permits,  such  exercises  as  the  above  may 
profitably  be  continued.     See  suggestions  with  preceding  exercises. 

Descriptive  "Writing.  —  This  extract  from  the  novelist  who  called 
herself  "  George  Eliot  "  we  have  slightly  changed  for  our  purpose.  It 
is  purely  descriptive.  It  is  a  painting  in  words  —  a  vivid  picture 
of  a  very  pretty  scene.  How  grateful  we  are  to  those  who  can,  as  it 
were,  turn  a  page  of  a  book'  into  canvas,  and  paint  on  it  a  rich  verbal 
picture  that  delights  us  every  time  we  read  it  or  recall  it !  How 
many  such  pictures  there  are  in  our  libraries  !  And  how  little  they  cost 
us  when  compared  with  those  that  we  buy  and  hang  upon  our  walls ! 

Some  Features  of  a  Good  Description.  —  Docs  this  author  men- 
tion many  features  of  the  mill,  of  the  stream,  and  of  the  horses  pull- 
ing their  load  over  the  bridge  ?  Do  those  that  she  does  mention 
suggest  to  you  everything  else  ?  Name  some  of  the  things  suggested 
to  you  but  not  mentioned  in  this  description.  Does  not  some  of  the 
charm  of  a  description  lie  in  the  reader's  having  something  left  him 
to  supply  ?  If  the  author  had  given  you  every  little  detail  of  the 
mill,  the  stream,  and  the  laboring  horses,  would  not  the  description 
have  been  dull  and  tiresome?  What  things  that  the  author  im- 
agined but  did  not  really  see  are  mentioned  in  the  third  paragraph  ? 
Do  these  touches  of  fancy  or  imagination  help  the  picture  ?  Do  they 
show  that  the  author  was  in  love  with  her  work  ?  and  do  they  there- 
fore stimulate  your  fancy  or  imagination  % 


Review.  113 

The  Framework.  —  In  making  a  framework  for  this  description 
would  you  take  for  the  general  topic  "  The  Scene  from  the  Bridge"  or 
"  Things  Seen  from  a  Bridge  "  I  or  would  you  prefer  some  other  word- 
ing of  it  1  Now  write  out  a  framework,  placing  the  sub-topics  under 
the  general  topic  as  you  have  been  taught. 

Original  Composition. 

Describe  some  scene  that  you  greatly  enjoy,  or  draw  your  picture 
from  imagination.  Make  a  framework  and  try  to  profit  by  all  that 
we  have  said. 

LESSON   51. 

REVIEW. 

Correct  these  miscellaneous  errors.  See  Cautions  in 
Lessons  30,  40,  and  41  :  — 

There  never  was  such  another  man. 

He  was  an  old  venerable  patriarch. 

John  has  a  cadaverous,  hungry,  and  lean  look. 

He  was  a  well-proportioned,  fine  fellow. 

Pass  me  them  potatoes. 

Put  your  trust  not  in  money. 

We  have  often  occasion  for  thanksgiving. 

Now  this  is  to  be  done  how? 

Nothing  can  justify  ever  profanity. 

To  continually  study  is  impossible. 

An  adverb  is  seldom  placed  between  the  preposition  to 
and  the  infinitive. 

Mary  likes  to  tastefully  dress. 
Learn  to  carefully  choose  your  words. 
She  looks  queerly. 


114  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Give  me  a  soon  and  direct  answer. 

The  post  stood  firmly. 

The  eagle  flies  highly. 

The  orange  tastes  sweetly. 

I  feel  tolerable  well. 

The  branch  breaks  easy. 

Thistles  grow  rapid. 

The  eagle  flies  swift. 

This  is  a  miserable  poor  pen. 
A  wealthy  gentleman  will  adopt  a  little  boy  with  a  small  family. 
A  gentleman  called  from  Africa  to  pay  his  compliments. 

Water  consists  in  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

He  went  out  attended  with  a  servant. 

I  have  a  dislike  to  such  tricksters. 

We  have  no  prejudice  to  foreigners. 

She  don't  know  nothing  about  it. 

Father  wouldn't  give  me  none. 

He  hasn't  been  sick  neither. 

I  won't  have  no  more  nohow. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  See  that  a  good  reason  is  given  for  every  correc- 
tion. 


LESSON   52. 
COMPOSITION. 


Build  sentences  in  which  the  following  participles  shall 
be  used  as  modifiers :  — 

Being  fatigued ;   laughing ;  being  amused ;  having  been  elected ; 
running ;  having  been  running. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns  as  Modifiers.  115 


Expand  each  of  the  following  sentences  into  three  sen- 
tences, using  the  participial  form  of  the  verb  as  a  partici- 
ple in  the  first;  the  same  form  as  an  adjective  in  the 
second ;  and  as  a  noun  in  the  third  :  — 

Model.  —  The  stream  flows;  The  stream,  flowing  gently,  crept 
through  the  meadow ;  The  flowing  stream  slipped  away  to  the  sea ; 
The  flowing  of  the  stream  caused  a  low  murmur. 

The  stream  flows.  The  sun  rises.  Insects  hum.  The  birds  sing. 
The  wind  whistles.     The  bells  are  ringing.     The  tide  ebbs. 

Form  infinitive  phrases  from  the  following  verbs,  and  use 
these  phrases  as  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  nouns,  in  sentences 
of  your  own  :  — 

Smoke,  dance,  burn,  eat,  lie,  try. 


LESSON  53. 
NOUNS  AND   PRONOUNS   AS   MODIFIERS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  In  the  sentence,  "  The 
robin's  eggs  are  blue,"  the  noun  robin's  does  what  ?  P.  — 
It  tells  what  or  whose  eggs  are  blue.  T. — What  word 
names  the  things  owned  or  possessed  ?  P.  —  Eggs,  T.  — 
What  word  names  the  owner  or  possessor  ?     P.  —  Robin's. 

T.  —  The  noun  robin's  is  here  used  as  a  modifier.  You 
see  that  this  word,  which  I  have  written  on  the  board,  is 
the  word  robin  with  a  little  mark  (')  called  an  apostrophe, 
and  the  letter  s  added.  These  are  added  to  denote 
possession. 


116  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


In  the  sentence,  "  Webster,  the  statesman,  was  born  in 
New  Hampshire,"  the  noun  statesman  modifies  the  subject 
Webster  by  explaining  what  or  which  Webster  is  meant. 
Both  words  name  the  same  person. 

Let  the  pupils  give  examples  of  each  of  these  two  kinds 
of  Noun  Modifiers  —  the  Possessive  and  the  Explanatory. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
Model.  —  Julia's  sister  Mary  has  lost  her  diamond  ring. 
sister  (Mary)      ,    lias   Tost    ^     ring 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  Mary  is  written  on  the  subject 
line,  because  Mary  and  sister ,v  both  name  the  same  person,  but  the 
word  Mary  is  inclosed  within  marks  of  parenthesis  to  show  that 
sister  is  the  proper  grammatical  subject. 

In  oral  analysis,  call  Julia's  and  Mary  modifiers  of  the  subject, 
sister,  because  Julia's  tells  whose  sister,  and  Mary  explains  sister 
by  adding  another  name  of  the  same  person.  Her  is  a  modifier  of 
the  object,  because  it  tells  whose  ring  is  meant. 

Julia's  sister  Mary  is  the  modified  subject,  the  predicate  is  un- 
modified, and  her  diamond  ring  is  the  modified  object  complement 

1.  The  planet  Jupiter  has  four  moons. 

2.  The  Emperor  Nero  was  a  cruel  tyrant. 

3.  Peter's  wife's  mother  lay  sick  of  a  fever. 

mother 


Composition.  117 


4.  An  ostrich  outruns  an  Arab's  horse. 

5.  His  pretty  little  nephew  Arthur  had  the  best  claim  to  the 
throne. 

6.  Milton,  the  great  English  poet,  became  blind. 

7.  Ca3sar  gave  his  daughter  Julia  in  marriage  to  Pompey. 

8.  London,  the  capital  of  England,  is  the  largest  and  richest  city 
in  the  world. 

9.  Joseph,  Jacob's  favorite  son,  was  sold  by  his  brethren  to  the 
Ishmaelites. 

10.  Alexander  the  Great1  was  educated  under  the  celebrated  phi- 
losopher, Aristotle. 

11.  Friends  tie  their  purses  with  a  spider's  thread. 

12.  Caesar  married  Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  Cinna. 

13.  His  fate,  alas  !  was  deplorable. 

14.  Love  rules  his  kingdom  without  a  sword. 


LESSON  54. 
COMPOSITION. 


Nouns  and  pronouns  denoting  possession  may  generally 
be  changed  to  equivalent  phrases ;  as,  Arnold's  treason  = 
the  treason  of  Arnold.  Here  the  preposition  of  indicates 
possession,  the  relation  expressed  by  the  apostrophe 
(>)  and  s.  Change  the  following  possessive  nouns  to 
equivalent  phrases,  and  the  phrases  indicating  possession 
to  possessive  nouns,  and  then  expand  the  expressions  into 
complete  sentences:  — 

1  Alexander  the  Great  may  be  taken  as  one  name,  or  Great  may  be 
called  an  explanatory  modifier  of  Alexander. 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Model.  —  The  earth's  surface ;  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  made 
up  of  land  and  water. 

The  earth's  surface ;  Solomon's  temple ;  England's  King ;  Wash- 
ington's Farewell  Address;  Dr.  Kane's  Explorations;  Peter's  wife's 
mother ;  George's  friend's  father ;  Shakespeare's  plays ;  Noah's  dove ; 
the  diameter  of  the  earth ;  the  daughter  of  Jephthah ;  the  invasion 
of  Burgoyne ;  the  voyage  of  Cabot ;  the  Armada  of  Philip ;  the 
attraction  of  the  earth  ;   the  light  of  the  moon. 

Find  for  the  things  mentioned  below,  other  names  which 
shall  describe  or  explain  them.  Add  such  names  to  these 
nouns,  and  then  expand  the  expressions  into  complete 
sentences :  — 

Model.  —  Ink.  —  Ink,  a  dark  fluid,  is  used  in  writing. 

Observe  the  following  rule  :  — 

Comma  —  Rule.  —  An  Explanatory  Modifier,  when  it  does 
not  restrict  the  modified  term  or  combine  closely  with  it,  is  set 
off  by  the  comma. 

New  York,  rain,  paper,  the  monkey,  the  robin,  tea,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  Alexander  Hamilton,  world,  peninsula,  Cuba,  Shakespeare. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  the  punctuation  of  the  different 
kinds  of  modifiers  is  in  determining  whether  or  not  they 
are  restrictive.  The  following  examples  illustrate  the 
difficulty  :  — 

(a)  The  words  golden  and  oriole  are  pleasant  to  the  ear. 

(b)  Words,  the  signs  of  ideas,  are  spoken  and  written. 

(c)  Use  words  that  are  current. 


Composition.  119 


(d)  Words,  which  are  the  signs  of  ideas,  are  spoken  and  written. 

(e)  The  country  anciently  called  Gaul  is  now  called  France. 

(/)  France,  anciently  called  Gaul,  derived  its  name  from  the 
Franks. 

(g)    Glass  bends  easily  when  it  is  hot. 

(Ji)   I  met  him  in  Paris,  when  I  was  last  abroad. 

In  (a)  the  application  of  words  is  limited,  or  restricted, 
to  the  two  words  mentioned  ;  in  (c?)  words  is  restricted  to  a 
certain  kind.  In  (6)  and  (d)  the  modifiers  do  not  restrict. 
They  apply  to  all  words  and  simply  add  information.  In 
(e)  the  participial  phrase  restricts  the  application  of  country 
to  one  particular  country ;  but  in  (/)  the  phrase  describes 
without  limiting.  The  omission  of  the  comma  in  (g) 
shows  that  "  Glass  bends  easily  "  is  not  offered  as  a  general 
statement,  but  that  the  action  is  restricted  to  a  certain 
time  or  condition.  When  it  is  hot  is  essential  to  the 
intended  meaning.  The  punctuation  of  (K)  shows  that 
the  speaker  does  not  wish  to  make  the  time  of  meeting  a 
prominent  or  essential  part  of  what  he  has  to  say.  The 
adverb  clause  simply  gives  additional  information.  If  (A) 
were  an  answer  to  the  question,  When  did  you  meet  him? 
the  comma  would  be  omitted.  The  sense  may  be  varied 
by  the  use  or  the  omission  of  the  comma. 

Let  the  pupils  see  how  incomplete  the  statements  are 
when  the  restrictive  modifiers  are  omitted,  and  that  the 
other  modifiers  are  not  so  necessary  to  the  sense,  but  are 
supplementary.     In  such  expressions  as  I  myself,  we  boy%y 


120  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


the  explanatory  words  are  not  restrictive,  but  they  com- 
bine closely  with  the  modified  term. 

Write  three  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  a 
noun  or  pronoun  denoting  possession,  and  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun used  to  explain. 

Study  these  possessive  forms  with  reference  to  the  pos- 
sessive signs :  — 

The  sailor's  story;  the  farmer's  son ;  the  pony's  mane ;  the  monkey's 
tail ;  a  day's  work ;  James's  book ;  a  cent's  worth ;  a  man's  wages ; 
the  child's  toys ;  the  woman's  hat ;  the  sailors'  stories ;  the  farmers' 
sons ;  the  ponies'  manes ;  the  monkeys'  tails  ;  three  days'  work  ;  five 
cents'  worth ;  two  men's  wages ;  those  children's  toys ;  women's 
hats. 

Pick  out  the  nouns  above  that  are  in  the  singular  and 
tell  which  of  the  two  possessive  signs —  (>s)  or  (?)  — they 
add.  Which  do  nouns  in  the  plural  add  ?  Note,  above, 
three  exceptions  in  the  plural.  Man,  woman,  and  child 
do  not  add  the  regular  s-ending  to  form  their  plurals. 
The  plurals  are  men,  women,  and  children,  and  the  posses- 
sive form  of  these  has  the  full  ('s)  — as  is  seen  above.  . 

Study  these  possessive  forms  :  — 

Dombey  &  Son's  business;  J.  J.  Little  &  Co.'s  printing-house; 
William  the  Conqueror's  reign;  Reed  and  Kellogg' s  series  of  gram- 
mars are  Maynard,  Merrill,  &  Company's  publications. 

When  a  group  of  words  is  treated  as  a  compound  name, 
which  word  of  the  group  takes  the  possessive  sign? 


Analysis  and  Parsing.  121 


LESSON  55. 

ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING. 

Miscellaneous  Examples  in  Eeview. 

1.  The  toad  spends  the  winter  in  a  dormant  state. 

2.  Pride  in  dress  or  in  beauty  betrays  a  weak  mind. 

3.  The  city  of  London  is  situated  on  the  river  Thames. 

4.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  born  in  1769,  on  an  island  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

5.  Men's  opinions  vary  with  their  interests. 

6.  Ammonia  is  found  in  the  sap  of  trees,  and  in  the  juices  of  all 
vegetables. 

7.  Earth  sends  up  her  perpetual  hymn  of  praise  to  the  Creator. 

8.  Having  once  been  deceived  by  him,  I  never  trusted  him  again. 

9.  iEsop,  the  author  of  iEsop's  Fables,  was  a  slave. 

10.  Hope  comes  with  smiles  to  cheer  the  hour  of  pain. 

11.  Clouds  are  collections  of  vapors  in  the  air. 

12.  To  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride. 

13.  Greece,  the  most  noted  country  of  antiquity,  scarcely  exceeded 
in  size  the  half  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

What  phrases  above  are  (1)  adjectival,  (2)  adverbial, 
(3)  compound,  and  (4)  complex?  What  compound  phrase 
has  a  complex  as  a  part  of  it  ? 


LESSON  56. 

ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING. 

Miscellaneous  Examples  in  Eeview  —  continued. 

1.  We  are  never  too  old  to  learn. 

2.  Civility  is  the  result  of  good  nature  and  good  sense. 


122  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


3.  The  right  of  the  people  to  instruct  their  representatives  is  gen- 
erally admitted. 

4.  The  immense  quantity  of  matter  in  the  Universe  presents  a 
most  striking  display  of  Almighty  power. 

5.  Virtue,  diligence,  and  industry,  joined  with  good  temper  and 
prudence,  must  ever  be  the  surest  means  of  prosperity. 

6.  The  people  called  Quakers  were  a  source  of  much  trouble  to 
the  Puritans. 

7.  The  Mayflower  brought  to  America1  one  hundred   and  one 
men,  women,  and  children. 

8.  Edward  Wingfield,  an  avaricious  and  unprincipled  man,  was 
the  first  president  of  the  Jamestown  colony. 

9.  John  Cabot  and  his  son  Sebastian,  sailing  under  a  commission 
from  Henry  VII.  of  England,  discovered  the  continent  of  America. 

1(3.    True  worth  is  modest  and  retiring. 

11.    Jonah,  the  prophet,  preached  to  the  inhabitants  of  Nineveh. 

In  the  exercise  you  take  for  pleasure,  in  the  errands  on 
which  you  are  sent,  and  in  your  going  to  and  from  school, 
I  will  suppose  that,  like  the  girl  in  the  picture,  you  walk  ; 
or,  like  the  boy  in  the  picture,  you  ride  on  your  wheel. 

We  are  all  reasonable  beings.  This  means  that,  whether 
or  not  we  think  of  it  at  the  time,  we  always  have  a  reason 
for  everything  we  do.  If  we  walk,  we  do  it  for  reasons 
that  seem  good  to  us  ;  if  we  ride,  we  do  it  for  other  rea- 
sons that  seem  good  to  us. 

Now,  without  suggestions  from  any  one,  think,  if  pos- 
sible, of  at  least   four  reasons,  satisfactory  to  you,  why 

1  One  hundred  and  one  may  be  taken  as  one  adjective. 


Composition. 


123 


A  Girl  on  Foot  and  a  Boy  Spinning  by  on  a  Wheel. 

you  go  about  on  foot,  if  you  do  ;  why  you  go  about  on 
a   wheel,  if   you    do  —  reasons   which   you   can   urge   in 
defence  and  justification  of  your  method  of  locomotion. 
These  reasons  will  form  an  Argument. 
Then  under  the  heading,  or  topic, 

WHY  I  GO  ABOUT   ON  TOOT, 

OR 

WHY  I   GO   ABOUT   ON  A   WHEEL, 

array,  one  after  another,  in  the  most  natural  order  you 
can  think  of,  these  good  reasons,  each  beginning,  "  I  walk 


124  Graded  Lessons  fn  English. 


because,"  etc.  ;    or    "  I   ride   on   a   wheel   because,"  etc. 
Then  expand  each  reason  into  a  paragraph. 

These  reasons,  or  sub-topics,  in  proper  order,  numbered, 
and  standing  under  the  general  topic,  form  an  outline  or 
framework.  The  development  of  each  sub-topic  forms, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  paragraph,  which  is  made  up  of 
sentences  in  proper  order.  The  relative  length  of  the 
paragraphs  depends  upon  the  relative  importance  of  the 
sub-topics  ;  and  the  paragraphs  grouped  together  consti- 
tute a  composition,  or  theme. 


LESSON   57. 

COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 

The  Adjective  Clause. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — A  word-modifier  may  some> 
times  be  expanded  into  a  phrase  or  into  an  expression 
that  asserts. 

T.  —  "A  wise  man  will  be  honored."  Expand  wise 
into  a  phrase,  and  give  me  the  sentence.  P.  —  "  A  man 
of  wisdom  will  be  honored."  T.  —  Expand  wise  into  an 
expression  that  asserts,  join  this  to  man,  as  a  modifier,  and 
then  give  me  the  entire  sentence.  P.  —  "  A  man  who  is 
wise  will  be  honored." 

T.  —  You  see  that  the  same  quality  may  be  expressed 
in  three  ways  —  A  wise  man,  A  man  of  wisdom,  A  man 
who  is  wise. 


Complex  Sentences.  125 


Let  the  pupils  give  similar  examples. 

T.  —  In  the  sentence,  "  A  man  who  is  wise  will  be  hon- 
ored," the  word  who  stands  for  what  ?  P.  —  For  the  noun 
man.  T.  —  Then  what  part  of  speech  is  it  ?  P.  —  A 
pronoun. 

T.  —  Put  the  noun  man  in  the  place  of  the  pronoun 
who,  and  then  give  me  the  sentence.  P.  —  "  A  man,  man 
is  wise,  will  be  honored." 

T.  —  I  will  repeat  your  sentence,  changing  the  order  of 
the  words  —  "A  man  will  be  honored."  " Man  is  wise." 
Is  the  last  sentence  now  joined  to  the  first  as  a  modifier, 
or  are  they  two  separate  sentences  ?  P.  —  They  are  two 
separate  sentences. 

T.  —  Then  you  see  that  the  pronoun  who  not  only 
stands  for  the  noun  man,  but  it  connects  the  modifying 
expression,  who  is  wise,  to  man,  the  subject  of  the  sentence, 
"A  man  will  be  honored,"  and  thus  there  is  formed  what 
we  call  a  Complex  Sentence.  These  two  parts  we  call 
Clauses.  "A  man  will  be  honored"  is  the  Independent 
Clause ;  who  is  wise  is  the  Dependent  Clause. 

*  Clauses   that   modify    nouns    or   pronouns    are    called 
Adjective  Clauses. 

Definition.  —  A  Clause  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  containing  a 
subject  and  its  predicate. 

Definition.  —  A  Dependent  Clause  is  one  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive, an  adverb,  or  a  noun. 

Definition.  —  An  Independent  Clause  is  one  not  dependent 
on  another  clause. 


126  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Definition.  —  A  Simple  Sentence  is  one  that  contains  but 
one  subject  and  one  predicate,  either  or  both  of  which  may  be 
compound. 

Definition.  —  A  Complex  Sentence  is  one  composed  of  an 
independent  clause  and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
Model.  — 

man     .       will  be  honored 

^V : — 

\ 

who  \  ,  is\    wise 

Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  You  will  notice  that  the  lines 
standing  for  the  subject  and  predicate  of  the  independent  clause  are 
heavier  than  those  of  the  dependent  clause.  This  pictures  to  you 
the  relative  importance  of  the  two  clauses.  You  will  see  that  the 
pronoun  who  is  written  on  the  subject  line  of  the  dependent  clause. 
But  this  word  performs  the  office  of  a  conjunction  also,  and  this  office 
is  expressed  in  the  diagram  by  a  dotted  line.  As  all  modifiers  are 
joined  by  slanting  lines  to  the  words  they  modify,  you  learn  from 
this  diagram  that  w7io  is  vrise  is  a  modifier  of  man. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  consists 
of  an  independent  clause  and  a  dependent  clause.  "A  man  will  be 
honored"  is  the  independent  clause;  who  is  wise  is  the  dependent 
clause.  Man  is  the  subject  of  the  independent  clause  ;  will  be  hon- 
ored is  the  predicate.  The  word  A  and  the  clause,  who  is  wise,  are 
modifiers  of  the  subject.  A  points  out  man,  and  who  is  wise  tells 
the  kind  of  man.  A  man  who  is  wise  is  the  modified  subject; 
the  predicate  is  unmodified.  Wlw  is  the  subject  of  the  dependent 
clause,  is  is  the  predicate,  and  wise  is  the  attribute  complement. 
Who  connects  the  two  clauses. 


Composition.  127 


1.  He  that  runs  may  read. 

2.  Man  is  the  only  animal  that  laughs  and  weeps. 

3.  Henry  Hudson  discovered  the  river  which  bears  his  name. 

4.  He  necessarily  remains  weak  who  never  tries  exertion. 

5.  The  meridians  are  those  lines  that  extend  from  pole  to  pole. 

6.  He  who  will  not  be  ruled  by  the  rudder  must  be  ruled  by  the 
rock. 

#7.    Animals  that  have  a  backbone  are  called  vertebrates. 

8.  Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown. 

9.  The  thick  mists  which  prevail  in  the  neighborhood  of  New- 
•foundland  are  caused  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

^10.    The  power  which  brings  a  pin  to  the  ground  holds  the  earth 
in  its  orbit. 

11.  Death  is  the  black  camel  which  kneels  at  every  man's  gate. 

1 2.  Our  best  friends  are  they  who  tell  us  of  our  faults,  and  help 
us  to  mend  them. 

The  pupil  will  notice  that,  in  some  of  these  sentences, 
the  dependent  clause  modifies  the  subject,  and  that,  in 
others,  it  modifies  the  noun  complement. 

Comma  —  Eule.  —  The  adjective  or  the  adverb  clause,  when 
it  does  not  closely  follow  and  restrict  the  word  modified,  is  gen- 
erally set  off  by  the  comma. 


LESSON  58. 

COMPOSITION. 

Adjective  Clauses. 

Expand  each  of  the  following  adjectives  into 

(1)  A  phrase,  (2)  A  clause, 


128  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


and  then  use  these  three  modifiers  in  three  separate  sen- 
tences of  your  own  construction:  — 


Model.  —  Energetic;  of  energy  ; 


who  has  energy, 

or 

k  who  is  energetic. 


An  energetic  man  will  succeed ;  a  man  of  energy  will  succeed ;  a 
man  who  has  energy  (or  who  is  energetic)  will  succeed.  « 

Honest,  long-eared,  beautiful,  wealthy. 

Expand  each  of  the  following  possessive  nouns  into 

(1)  A  phrase,  (2)  A  clause, 

and  then  use  these  three  modifiers  in  three  separate  sen- 
tences :  — 

Model.  —  Saturn's  rings;  the  rings  of  Saturn;  the  rings  which 
surround  Saturn. 

Saturn's  rings  can  be  seen  with  a  telescope ;  the  rings  of  Saturn 
can  be  seen  with  a  telescope ;  the  rings  which  surrouna  Saturn  can 
be  seen  with  a  telescope. 

Absalom's  hair ;  the  hen's  eggs ;  the  elephant's  tusks. 

Change  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex 
sentences  by  expanding  the  participial  phrases  into 
clauses. 

The  vessels  carrying  the  blood  from  the  heart  are  called  arteries. 
The  book  prized  above  all  other  books  is  the  Bible. 
Rivers  rising  west  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  flow  into  the  Pacific  ocean. 
The  guns  fired  at  Concord  were  heard  around  the  world. 


Complex  Sentences.  129 


LESSON  59. 
COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 
The  Adverb    Clause. 


Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  You  learned  in  Lesson  33 
that  an  adverb  can  be  expanded  into  an  equivalent  phrase  ; 
as,  "  The  book  was  carefully  read  "  =  "  The  book  was  read 
with  care" 

You  are  now  to  learn  that  a  phrase  used  as  an  adverb 
may  be  expanded  into  an  Adverb  clause.  In  the  sentence, 
" We  started  at  sunrise"  what  phrase  is  used  like  an  ad- 
verb ?  P.  — At  sunrise.  T.  —  Expand  this  phrase  into 
an  equivalent  clause,  and  give  me  the  entire  sentence. 
P. — "We  started  when  the  sun  rose" 

T.  —  You  see  that  the  phrase,  at  sunrise,  and  the  clause, 
when  the  sun  rose,  both  modify  started,  telling  the  time  of 
starting,  and  are  therefore  equivalent  to  adverbs.  We 
will  then  call  such  clauses  Adverb  clauses. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
Model.  — 

We      ,  started    


sun    \  rose 


130  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  The  line  which  connects  the  two 
predicate  lines  pictures  three  things.  It  is  made  up  of  three  parts. 
The  upper  part  shows  that  when  modifies  started;  the  lower  part, 
that  it  modifies  rose;  and  the  dotted  part  shows  that  it  connects. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  complex  sentence,  because ;    We 

started  is  the  independent  clause,  and  when  the  sun  rose  is  the 
dependent  clause.  We  is  the  subject  of  the  independent  clause,  and 
started  is  the  predicate.  The  clause,  when  the  sun  rose,  is  a  modi- 
fier of  the  predicate,  because  it  tells  when  we  started.  Started  when 
the  sun  rose  is  the  modified  predicate. 

Sun  is  the  subject  of  the  dependent  clause,  and  rose  is  the  predi- 
cate, and  the  is  a  modifier  of  sun;  the  sun  is  the  modified  subject. 
When  modifies  rose  and  started,  and  connects  the  clause-modifier  to 
the  predicate  started. 

Parsing  of  when.  —  When  is  an  adverb  modifying  the  two  verbs 
started  and  rose,  and  thus  connects  the  two  clauses.  It  modifies 
these  verbs  by  showing  that  the  two  actions  took  place  at  the  same 
time. 

1.  The  dew  glitters  when  the  sun  shines. 

2.  Printing  was  unknown  when  Homer  wrote  the  Iliad. 

3.  Where  the  bee  sucks  honey,  the  spider  sucks  poison. 

4.  Ah  !  few  shall  part  where  many  meet. 

5.  Where  the  devil  cannot  come,  he  will  send. 

6.  While  the  bridegroom  tarried,  they  all  slumbered  and  slept. 

7.  Fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread. 

8.  When  the  tale  of  bricks  is  doubled,  Moses  comes. 

9.  When  I  look  upon  the  tombs  of  the  great,  every  emotion  of 
envy  dies  within  me. 

10.  The  upright  man  speaks  as  he  thinks. 

11.  He  died  as  the  fool  dieth. 

12.  The  scepter  shall  not  depart  from  Judah  until  Shiloh  come. 


Composition.  131 


When,  while,  and  until  indicate  time ;  the  clauses  they 
introduce  are  adverb  clauses  of  time.  Select  them. 
Where  indicates  place ;  the  clauses  it  introduces  are  ad- 
verb clauses  of  place.  How  many  are  there  in  the  sen- 
tences above  ?  As  here  indicates  manner.  Pick  out  the 
adverb  clauses  of  manner  which  it  introduces.     In 

The  ground  is  wet  because  it  rains;  if  the  night  is  cloudy,  no  dew 
will  fall ;  though  it  rained  during  the  night,  the  ground  is  now  dry ; 
Nature  puts  us  to  sleep  at  night  that  she  may  repair  the  waste  of  the 
body  by  day, 

the  clauses  introduced  by  (1)  because,  (2)  if,  (3)  though, 
and  (4)  that  are  adverb  clauses  of  (1)  cause,  (2)  condition, 
(3)  concession,  and  (4)  purpose.  The  words  introducing 
them  are  not  conjunctive  adverbs  but  pure  conjunctions, 
and  stand  where  when  stands,  in  the  diagram  above,  but 
on  a  line  dotted  throughout. 

See  if,  in  the  offices  which  these  common  adverb  clauses 
perform,  you  can  find  the  justification  of  their  names. 


LESSON  60. 

COMPOSITION. 

Adverb  Clauses. 

Expand  each  of  the  following  phrases  into  an  adverb 
clause,  and  fit  this  clause  into  a  sentence  of  your  own :  — 

Model.  — At  sunset;  when  the  sun  set.     We  returned  when  the 
sun  set. 


132  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


At  the  hour ;  on  the  playground ;  by  moonlight ;  in  youth ;  among 
iceoergs;  after  school;  at  the  forks  of  the  road;  during  the  day; 
before  church  ;  with  my  friend. 

To  each  of  the  following  independent  clauses,  join  an 
adverb  clause,  and  so  make  complex  sentences :  — 

Peter  began  to  sink.      The  man  dies .      Grass  grows 

.     Iron can  easily  be  shaped.     The  rattlesnake  shakes  his 

rattle .      a  nation  mourns.      Pittsburg  stands .     He 

dared  to  lead . 

An  adverb  clause  may  stand  before  the  independent 
clause,  between  its  parts,  or  after  it ;  as,  "  When  it  is  hot, 
glass  bends  easily";  "Glass,  when  it  is  hot,  bends  easily"; 
"Glass  bends  easily  when  it  is  hot."  Notice  the  punctua- 
tion ©f  these  examples. 

Adverb  clauses  may  be  contracted  in  various  ways. 
Clauses  introduced  by  the  comparatives  as  and  than  are 
^usually  found  in  an  abbreviated  form;  as,  "You  are  as 
old  as  he  (is  old)";  "You  are  older  than  I  ¥(am  old)." 
Attention  may  be  called  to  the  danger  of  mistaking  here 
the  nominative  for  the  objective.  We  suggest  making 
selections  for  the  study  of  adverb  clauses. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

In  what  two  ways  may  nouns  be  used  as  modifiers  ?  Illustrate. 
Nouns  and  pronouns  denoting  possession  may  sometimes  be  changed 
into  what  ?  Illustrate.  Give  the  rule  for  the  punctuation  of  explana- 
tory modifiers.  Into  what  may  an  adjective  be  expanded?  Into 
what  may  a  participial  phrase  be  expanded  ?      Give  illustrations. 


Composition. 


133 


Give  an  example  of  a  complex  sentence.  Of  a  clause.  Of  an  inde- 
pendent clause.  Of  a  dependent  clause.  Into  what  may  a  phrase 
used  as  an  adverb  be  expanded?  Illustrate  the  seven  classes  of 
adverb  clauses  spoken  of  in  Lesson  59. 

Composition  of  Sentences  and  op  Paragraphs. 

selection  prom  the  brothers  grimm. 

Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  very  old  man,  whose  eyes  were  dim, 
whose  ears  were  dull,  and  whose  knees  trembled.     When  he  sat  at 


table,  he  could  scarcely  hold  his  spoon ;  and  often  he  spilled  his  food 
over  the  tablecloth  and  sometimes  down  his  clothes. 

His  son  and  daughter-in-law  were  much  vexed  about  this,  and  at 
last  they  made  the  old  man  sit  behind  the  oven  in  a  corner,  and  gave 


134  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


him  his  food  in  an  earthen  dish,  and  not  enough  of  it  either ;  so  that 
the  poor  man  grew  sad,  and  his  eyes  were  wet  with  tears.  Once  his 
hand  trembled  so  much  that  he  could  not  hold  the  dish,  and  it  fell 
upon  the  ground  and  broke  all  in  pieces,  so  that  the  young  wife 
scolded  him;  but  he  made  no  reply  and  only  sighed.  Then  they 
bought  him  a  wooden  dish,  and  out  of  that  he  had  to  feed. 

One  day,  as  he  was  sitting  in  his  usual  place,  he  saw  his  little 
grandson,  four  years  old,  fitting  together  some  pieces  of  wood.  "What 
are  you  making  ? "  asked  the  old  man. 

"I  am  making  a  wooden  trough,"  replied  the  child,  "for  father 
and  mother  to  feed  out  of  when  I  grow  big." 

At  these  words  the  father  looked  at  his  wife  for  a  moment,  and 
presently  they  began  to  cry.  Henceforth  they  let  the  old  grandfather 
sit  at  table  with  them,  and  they  did  not  even  say  anything  if  he 
spilled  a  little  food  upon  the  cloth. 

The  Uses  of  Words  and  Groups  of  Words.  —  What  is  the  order 
of  subject  and  predicate  in  the  first  sentence  of  this  selection  ?  The 
word  there  does  not  tell  where ;  it  is  put  before  was  to  let  the  subject 
follow.  TJiere  is  frequently  so  used  and  is  then  called  an  independent 
adverb.  Find  in  the  first  sentence  three  adjective  clauses.  What 
connects  each  to  man  ?  What  other  office  has  this  connective  1  How 
are  these  adjective  clauses  connected  with  one  another  (  What  is  the 
office  of  the  dependent  clause  in  the  next  sentence  ?  If  this  clause 
were  placed  after  its  principal  clause,  would  the  comma  be  needed? 
Are  the  clauses  separated  by  the  semicolon  as  closely  connected  as 
those  divided  by  the  comma  1 

After  made  and  some  other  words  the  to  before  the  infinitive  is 
omitted.  Find  such  an  instance  in  the  first  sentence  of  the  second 
paragraph.  In  this  same  sentence  change  gave  him  his  food,  making 
him  come  last.  You  have  learned  that  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  may  be 
used  without  a  preposition  to  do  the  work  of  an  adverb  phrase. 


Composition.  135 


What  does  one  day  do  in  the  third  paragraph?  Is  a  preposition 
needed  before  day  ?  In  the  same  sentence  years  is  used  adverbially 
to  modify  the  adjective  old.  It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  preposition 
to  put  before  years.  We  might  say  "old  to  the  extent  of  four 
years,"  but  four  years  answers  for  the  whole  phrase.  In  this  same 
paragraph  what  words  are  quoted  exactly  as  the  old  man  uttered 
them  1  Notice  that  the  next  quotation  is  broken  by  the  words  replied 
the  child,  and  so  each  part  of  the  quotation  is  separately  inclosed 
within  quotation  marks.     (See  next  lesson.) 

To  the  Teacher.  —  We  have  here  touched  a  few  features  of  the  sen- 
tences above.  The  exercises  given  with  the  preceding  selections  will 
suggest  a  fuller  examination  of  the  phrases  and  clauses. 

Suggestions  from  this  Narrative.  —  We  see  that  this  beautiful 
story  has  a  purpose.  Its  purpose  is  to  teach  us  kindness  to  our 
parents.  It  is  well  planned.  Every  sentence  and  every  paragraph 
is  adapted  to  the  end  in  view.  No  useless  item  or  circumstance  is 
admitted.  The  story  stops  when  the  end  is  reached.  Anything 
added  to  the  fifth  paragraph  would  spoil  the  story.  We  certainly 
can  learn  much  from  such  a  model. 

Paragraphs. — Does  every  sentence  in  the  first  paragraph  aid  in 
picturing  the  helplessness  of  the  old  grandfather?  Is  the  picture 
complete  1  Does  the  second  paragraph  strongly  impress  us  with  the 
unkindness  of  the  son  and  daughter-in-law,  who  ought  to  have  been 
moved  to  pity  by  the  old  man's  condition  ?  Does  it  contain  an  unnec- 
essary sentence  1  In  telling  how  the  grandchild  unconsciously  taught 
a  lesson,  a  dialogue  is  introduced,  and  so  what  really  belongs  to  one 
sub-topic  is  put  in  the  form  of  two  paragraphs.  It  is  customary  to 
make  a  separate  paragraph  of  each  single  speech  in  a  dialogue.  Read 
the  last  paragraph  carefully  and  see  whether  one  could  wish  to  know 
anything  more  about  the  effect  of  the  lesson  taught  by  the  child. 

Make  a  framework  for  this  story. 


136  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Original  Composition. 


Make  up  a  short  story  from  your  own  experience,  or  from  your 
imagination,  and  try  to  profit  by  the  suggestions  above.  Prepare  a 
framework  at  the  beginning. 


LESSON    61. 

THE   NOUN   CLAUSE. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  "That  stars  are  suns  is 
taught  by  astronomers."  What  is  taught  by  astrono- 
mers? P. — That  stars  are  suns.  T. — What,  then,  is 
the  subject  of  is  taught  t  P.  —  The  clause,  That  stars  are 
suns.  T. — This  clause,  then,  performs  the  office  of  what 
part  of  speech  ?     P.  —  Of  a  noun. 

T.  —  "Astronomers  teach  that  stars  are  suns."  What 
do  astronomers  teach?  P.  —  That  stars  are  suns.  T. — 
What  is  the  object  complement  of  teach  t  P.  —  The  clause, 
that  stars  are  suns.  T.  —  What  office,  then,  does  this 
clause  perform  ?     P.  —  That  of  a  noun. 

T.  — "  The  teaching  of  astronomers  is,  that  stars  are 
suns."  What  does  is  assert  of  teaching  ?  P.  —  That  stars 
are  suns.  T.  —  What,  then,  is  the  attribute  complement  ? 
P.  —  That  stars  are  suns.  T.  —  Does  this  complement  ex- 
press the  quality  of  the  subject,  or  does  it  name  the 
thing  that  the  subject  names  ?  P.  —  It  names  the  thing 
that  the  subject  names.  T.  —  It  is  equivalent  then  to 
what  part  of  speech  ?     P.  —  To  a  noun. 


The  Noun  Clause.  137 


T.  —  You  see  then  that  a  clause,  like  a  noun,  may  be 
used  as  the  subject  or  the  complement  of  a  sentence. 


Analysis  and  Parsing. 

That 


stars  ,  are  \\  suns 


taught 


You  will  understand  this  diagram  from  the  explanation  of  the 
second  diagram  in  Lesson  49. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  complex  sentence,  in  which  the  whole 
sentence  takes  the  place  of  the  independent  clause.  That  stars  are 
suns  is  the  dependent  clause.  That  stars  are  suns  is  the  subject  of 
the  whole  sentence.      That  simply  introduces  the  dependent  clause. 

In  parsing,  call  that  &  conjunction. 

1.  That  the  Scotch  are  an  intelligent  people  is  generally 
acknowledged. 

2.  That  the  moon  is  made  of  green  cheese  is  believed  by  some 
boys  and  girls. 

3.  That  Julius  Csesar  invaded  Britain  is  a  historic  fact. 

4.  That  children  should  obey  their  parents  is  a  divine  precept. 

5.  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth. 

6.  Plato  taught  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 

7.  Peter  denied  that  he  knew  his  Lord. 

8.  Mahomet  found  that  the  mountain  would  not  move. 

9.  The  principle  maintained  by  the  colonies  was,  that  taxation 
without  representation  is  unjust. 


138  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


10.  Our  intention  is,  that  this  work  shall  be  well  done. 

11.  Our  hearts'  desire  and  prayer  is,  that  you  may  be  saved. 

12.  The  belief  of  the  Sadducees  was,  that  there  is  no  resurrection 
of  the  dead. 

Look  at  the  noun  clauses  in  these  sentences  :  — 

1.  Goldsmith  says,  "  Learn  the  luxury  of  doing  good." 

2.  Goldsmith  says  that  we  should  learn  the  luxury  of  doing  good. 

3.  "  The  owlet  Atheism,  hooting  at  the  glorious  sun  in  heaven, 
cries  out,  '  Where  is  it  ? ' " 

4.  Coleridge  compares  atheism  to  an  owlet  hooting  at  the  sun,  and 
asking  where  it  is. 

5.  "  To  read  without  reflecting,"  says  Burke,  "is  like  eating  with- 
out digesting." 

6.  May  we  not  find  "  sermons  in  stones  and  good  in  everything  "  ? 

7.  There  is  much  meaning  in  the  following  quotation :    "  Books 
are  embalmed  minds." 

8.  We  must  ask,  What  are  we  living  for  ? 

9.  We  must  ask  what  we  are  living  for. 

Notice  that  the  writer  of  (1)  has  copied  into  his  sen- 
tence (quoted)  the  exact  language  of  Goldsmith.  The 
two  marks,  like  inverted  commas,  and  the  two  marks,  like 
apostrophes,  which  inclose  this  copied  passage  (quotation), 
are  called  Quotation  Marks. 

Name  all  the  differences  between  (1)  and  (2).  Is  the 
same  thought  expressed  in  both  ?  Which  quotation 
would  you  call  direct  ?     Which,  indirect  ? 

Notice  that  the  whole  of  (3)  is  a  quotation,  and  that 
this  quotation  contains  another  quotation  inclosed  within 


The  Noun  Clause.  139 


single  marks.  Notice  the  order  of  the  marks  at  the  end 
of  (3). 

Point  out  the  differences  between  (3)  and  (4).  In 
which  is  a  question  quoted  just  as  it  would  be  asked  ? 
In  which  is  a  question  merely  referred  to  ?  Which  ques- 
tion would  you  call  direct?  Which,  indirect?  Name 
every  difference  in  the  form  of  these. 

In  which  of  the  above  sentences  is  a  quotation  inter- 
rupted by  a  parenthetical  clause?  How  are  the  parts 
marked  ? 

Point  out  a  quotation  that  cannot  make  complete  sense 
by  itself.  How  does  it  differ  from  the  others  as  to  punc- 
tuation and  the  first  letter  ? 

In  (7)  a  Colon  precedes  the  quotation  to  show  that  it  is 
introduced  in  a  formal  manner  by  the  word  following. 

In  (8)  a  question  is  introduced  without  quotation 
marks.  Questions  that,  like  this,  are  introduced  without 
being  referred  to  any  particular  person  or  persons,  are 
often  written  without  quotation  marks.  State  the  differ- 
ences between  (8)  and  (9). 

In  quoting  a  question,  the  interrogation  point  must 
stand  within  the  quotation  marks  ;  but,  when  a  question 
contains  a  quotation,  this  order  is  reversed.  Point  out 
illustrations  above. 

Selections  written  in  the  colloquial  style  and  containing  frequent 
quotations  and  questions  may  be  taken  from  reading  books,  for 
examination,  discussion,  and  copying. 


140  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


LESSON  62. 
COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 


Definition.  —  A  Compound  Sentence  is  one  composed  of  two 
or  more  independent  clauses.. 

Model.  —  War  has  ceased,  and  peace  has  come. 
War  i      lias    ceased 


USE 


[arid 

peace   r     lias  \  come 

Explanation  of  the  Diagram.  —  These  two  clause  diagrams  are 
shaded  alike  to  show  that  the  two  clauses  are  of  the  same  rank.  The 
connecting  line  is  not  slanting,  for  one  clause  is  not  a  modifier  of  the 
other.  As  one  entire  clause  is  connected  with  the  other,  the  con- 
necting line  is  drawn  between  the  predicates  simply  for  convenience. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  This  is  a  compound  sentence,  because  it  is  made 
up  of  two  independent  clauses.     The  first  clause,  etc. . 

1.  Morning  dawns,  and  the  clouds  disperse. 

2.  Prayer  leads  the  heart  to  God,  and  he  always  listens. 

3.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath,  but  grievous  words  stir  up 
anger. 

4.  Power  works  easily,  but  fretting  is  a  perpetual  confession  of 
weakness. 

5.  Many  meet  the  gods,  but  few  salute  them. 

6.  We  eat  to  live,  but  we  do  not  live  to  eat. 

7.  The  satellites  revolve  in  orbits  around  the  planets,  and  the 
planets  move  in  orbits  around  the  sun. 


Sentences  Classified  with  Respect  to  Meaning.         141 


8.  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father,  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heavi- 
ness of  his  mother. 

9.  Every  man  desires  to  live  long,  but  no  man  would  be  old. 

10.  l  Pride  goeth  before  destruction,  and  a  haughty  spirit  before 
a  fall. 

11.  Towers  are  measured  by  their  shadows,  and  great  men  by 
their  calumniators. 

12.  Worth  makes  the  man,  and  want  of  it  the  fellow. 


LESSON   63. 
SENTENCES  CLASSIFIED  WITH  RESPECT  TO  THEIR  MEANING. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  You  have  already  become 
acquainted  with  three  kinds  of  sentences.  Can  you  name 
them  ?  P.  —  The  Simple  sentence,  the  Complex,  and  the 
Compound. 

T.  —  These  classes  have  been  made  with  regard  to  the 
form  of  the  sentence.  We  will  now  arrange  sentences  in 
classes  with  regard  to  their  meaning. 

"Mary  sings."  "Does  Mary  sing?"  "Sing,  Mary" 
"How  Mary  sings!"  Here  are  four  simple  sentences. 
Do  they  all  mean  the  same  thing?      P.  —  They  do  not. 

T.  —  Well,  you  see  they  differ.  Let  me  tell  you  wherein. 
The  first  one  tells  a  fact,  the  second  asks  a  question,  the 
third  expresses  a  command,  and  the  fourth  expresses  sud- 
den thought  or  strong  feeling.     We  call  the  first  a  Declara- 

1 A  verb  is  to  be  supplied  in  each  of  the  last  three  sentences. 


142  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


tive  sentence,  the  second  an  Interrogative  sentence,  the 
third  an  Imperative  sentence,  and  the  fourth  an  Exclama- 
tory sentence. 

Definition.  —  A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  that  is  used  to 
affirm  or  to  deny. 

Definition.  —  An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  that  ex- 
presses a  question. 

Definition.  —  An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  that  expresses 
a  command  or  an  entreaty. 

Definition.  —  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  that  expresses 
sudden  thought  or  strong  feeling. 

Interrogation  Point  —  Rule.  —  Every  direct  interrogative 
sentence  should  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point. 

COMPOSITION. 

Change  each  of  the  following  declarative  sentences  into 
three  interrogative  sentences,  and  tell  how  the  change  was 
made :  — 

Model.  —  Girls  can  skate ;  Can  girls  skate  ?  How  can  girls 
skate  ?     What  girls  can  skate  f 

You  are  happy.     Parrots  can  talk.     Low  houses  were  built. 

Change  each  of  the  following  into  an  imperative  sen- 
tence. Notice  that  independent  words  are  set  off  by  the 
comma :  — 

Model.  —  Carlo  eats  his  dinner;  Eat  your  dinner,  Carlo. 

George  plays  the  flute.     Birdie  stands  on  one  leg. 


Analysis  and  Parsing.  143 


Change  each  of  the  following  into  exclamatory  sen- 
tences :  — 

Model. —  You  are  happy;  How  happy  you  are!  Wliat  a 
happy  child  you  are  I     You  are  so  happy ! 

Time  flies  swiftly.  I  am  glad  to  see  you.  A  refreshing  shower 
fell.     Lapland  is  a  cold  country.     It  is  hot  between  the  tropics. 

Write  a  declarative,  an  interrogative,  an  imperative, 
and  an  exclamatory  sentence  on  each  of  the  following 
topics:  — 

Weather,  lightning,  a  stage  coach. 


LESSON   64. 

ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING. 

Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Eeview. 

In  the  analysis,  classify  these  sentences  first  with  refer- 
ence to  their  form,  and  then  with  reference  to  their  mean- 
ing: — 

1.  Wickedness  is  often  made  a  substitute  for  wit. 

2.  Alfred  was  a  brave,  pious,  and  patriotic  prince. 

3.  The  throne  of  Philip  trembles  while  Demosthenes  speaks. 

4.  That  the  whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  its  parts  is  an  axiom. 

5.  The  lion  belongs  to  the  cat  tribe,  but  he  cannot  climb  a  tree. 

6.  Pride  is  a  flower  that  grows  in  the  devil's  garden. 

7.  Of  all  forms  of  habitation,  the  simplest  is  the  burrow. 

8.  When  the  righteous  are  in  authority,  the  people  rejoice. 

9.  When  the  wicked  beareth  rule,  the  people  mourn. 


144  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


10.  1Cassius,  be  not  deceived. 

11.  How  rich,  how  poor,  how  abject,  how  august,  how  wonderful 
is  man  ! 

12.  Which  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world? 


LESSOR    65. 

ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING. 

Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Review  —  continued. 

1.  Politeness  is  the  oil  which  lubricates  the  wheels  of  society. 

2.  0  liberty !  liberty !  how  many  crimes  are  committed  in  thy 
name ! 

3.  The  mind  is  a  goodly  field,  aitd  to  sow  it  with  trifles  is  the 
worst  husbandry  in  the  world. 

4.  Every  day  in  thy  life  is  a  leaf  in  thy  history. 

5.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

6.  Columbus  did  not  know  that  he  had  discovered  a  new  continent. 

7.  The  subject  of  inquiry  was,  Who  invented  printing? 

8.  The  cat's  tongue  is  covered  with    thousands  of  little  sharp 
cones,  pointing  towards  the  throat. 

9.  The  fly  sat  upon  the  axle  of  a  chariot  wheel  and  said,  "  What 
a  dust  do  I  raise  ! n 

10.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  attempting  to  recross  the  Atlantic  in 
his  little  vessel,  the  Squirrel,  went  down  in  mid-ocean. 

11.  Charity  begins  at  home,  but  it  should  not  stay  there. 

12.  The  morn,  in  russet  mantle  clad,  walks  o'er  the  dew  of  yon 
high  eastern  hill. 

1  Cassius  is  independent,  and  may  be  diagramed  like  an  interjection. 
The  subject,  of  be  deceived,  is  thou  or  you,  understood. 


Composition. 


145 


'At  Recess. 


This  is  a  picture  of  pupils  playing  games  at  recess. 
Some  of  the  games  boys  alone  play ;  some,  girls  play ;  and 
some,  boys  and  girls  together  play. 

The  boys  of  the  class  may  select  at  least  three  of  these 
games,  and  in  as  many  paragraphs  may  tell  how  they  are 
played  —  what  they  are  ;  the  girls  may  take  the  three  or 
more  which  they  like  best,  and  do  the  same  with  them. 

Confine  yourselves  to  the  essential  features  of  each 
game.     See  how  much  good  thought  upon  these  points 


146  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


you  can  put  into  the  paragraphs.  Choose  apt  and  simple 
words,  arrange  them  with  care,  and  diversify  your  sen- 
tences in  kind  and  in  length,  making  what  you  have  to 
say  clear  and  strong  by  your  way  of        '   g  it. 

The  composition,  telling  what  so:         ximgs  are,  will  be 
Expository. 


LESSON    66. 
MISCELLANEOUS   ERRORS   IN   REVIEW. 

I  haven't  near  so  much.  I  only  want  one.  Draw  the  string 
tightly.  He  writes  good.  I  will  prosecute  him  who  sticks  bills  upon 
this  church  or  any  other  nuisance.  Noah  for  his  godliness  and  his 
family  were  saved  from  the  flood.  We  were  at  Europe  this  summer. 
You  may  rely  in  that.  She  lives  to  home.  I  can't  do  no  work.  He 
will  never  be  no  better.  They  seemed  to  be  nearly  dressed  alike.  I 
won't  never  do  so  no  more.  A  ivory  ball.  An  hundred  head  of 
cattle,  george  Washington,  gen  dix  of  n  y.  o  sarah  i  Saw  A  pretty 
Bonnet,  are  You  going  home?  A  young  man  wrote  these  verses 
who  has  long  lain  in  his  grave  for  his  own  amusement.  This  house 
will  be  kept  by  the  widow  of  Mr.  B.  who  died  recently  on  an  improved 
plan.  (In  correcting  the  position  of  the  adjective  clauses  in  the  two 
examples  above,  observe  the  caution  for  the  phrase  modifiers,  Lesson 
41.)  He  was  an  independert  small  farmer.  The  mind  knows  feels 
and  thinks.  The  urchin  was  ragged  barefooted  dirty  homeless  and 
friendless.  I  am  some  tired.  This  here  road  is  rough.  That  there 
man  is  homely,  pshaw  i  am  so  Disgusted.  Whoa  can't  you  stand 
still.  James  the  gardener  gave  me  a  white  lily.  Irving  the  genial 
writer  lived  on  the  hudson. 


Composition.  147 


LESSON  67. 
COMPOSITION. 


Construct  one  sentence  out  of  each  group  of  the  sen- 
tences which  folfiiW— 

Model.  —  An  able  man"  was  chosen. 

A  prudent  man  was  chosen. 
An  honorable  man  was  chosen. 
An  able,  prudent,  and  honorable  man  was  chosen. 
Pure  water  is  destitute  of  color. 
Pure  water  is  destitute  of  taste. 
Pure  water  is  destitute  of  smell. 
Cicero  was  the  greatest  orator  of  his  age. 
Demosthenes  was  the  greatest  orator  of  his  age. 
Daisies  peeped  up  here. 
Daisies  peeped  up  there. 
Daisies  peeped  up  everywhere. 

Expand  each  of  the  following  sentences  into  three :  — 
The  English  language  is  spoken  in  England,    Canada,   and  the 

United  States.     The  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  Arkansas  rivers  are  branches 

of  the  Mississippi. 

Out  of  the  four  following  sentences  compose  one  sen- 
tence having  three  explanatory  modifiers  :  — 
Model.  —  Elizabeth  was  the  daughter  of  Henry  VIII. 
Elizabeth  was  sister  of  Queen  Mary. 
Elizabeth  was  the  patron  of  literature. 
Elizabeth  defeated  the  Armada. 
Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Henry  VIIL,  sister  of  Queen  Mary> 
and  the  patron  of  literature,  defeated  the  Armada. 


148  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Boston  is  the  capital  of  Massachusetts. 
Boston  is  the  Athens  of  America. 
Boston  is  the  "  Hub  of  the  Universe  " 
Boston  has  crooked  streets. 

Expand  the  following  sentence  into  four  ^  jntences  :  — 

Daniel  Webster,  the  great  jurist,  the  expounder'  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  the  chief  of  the  "American  Triumvirate,"  died  with  the 
words,  "  I  still  live,"  on  his  lips. 


LESSON    68. 
COMPOSITION. 

Change  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex 
sentences  by  expanding  the  phrases  into  adjective 
clauses  :  ■ — 

Model.  —  People  living  in  glass  houses  shouldn't  throw  stones. 
People  who  live  in  glass  houses  shouldn't  throw  stones. 

Those  living  in  the  Arctic  regions  need  much  oily  food. 

A  house  built  upon  the  rock  will  stand. 

The  boy  of  studious  habits  will  always  have  his  lesson. 

Wellington  was  a  man  of  iron  will. 

A  scholar  without  money  is  not  a  bankrupt. 

Everybody  has  something  to  teach  us. 

A  race  shortening  its  weapons  extends  its  boundaries. 

Change  the  following  complex  sentences  into  simple 
sentences  by  contracting  the  adjective  clauses  into 
phrases  :  — 


Composition.  149 


Much  of  the  cotton  which  is  raised  in  the  Gulf  States  is  exported. 
The  house  which  was  built  upon  the  sand  fell. 
A  thing  which  is  beautiful  is  a  joy  forever. 
Aaron  Burr  was  a  man  who  had  fascinating  manners. 
Glaciers,  which  flow  down  mountain  gorges,  obey  the  law  of  rivers. 
The  best  sermon  which  was  ever  preached  on  modern  society  is 
"Vanity  Fair." 

In  mere  love  of  what  was  vile,  Charles  II.  surpassed  all  his  subjects. 
A  common  English  ending  is  er,  which  is  indicative  of  the  agent. 

Change  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex 
sentences  by  expanding  the  phrases  into  adverb  clauses :  — 

Model.  —  Birds  return  in  the  spring;  when  spring  comes,  the 
birds  return. 

The  dog  came  at  call.     In  old  age  our  senses  fail. 
Shakespeare  died  at  his  birthplace. 

"Wishing  to  enjoy  the  Adirondacks,  you  must  carry  mountains  in 
your  brain. 

Staying  at  home,  one  may  visit  Italy  and  the  tropics. 
Death,  delaying  his  visits  long,  will  certainly  knock  at  every  door. 
A  shrug  of  the  shoulders,  translated  into  words,  would  lose  much. 
Modern  failures  are  of  such  magnitude  as  to  appall  the  imagination. 

Change  the  following  complex  sentences  into  simple  sen- 
tences by  contracting  the  adverb  clauses  into  phrases  :  — 

The  ship  started  when  the  tide  was  at  flood. 

When  he  reached  the  middle  of  his  speech,  he  stopped. 

Error  dies  of  lockjaw  if  she  scratches  her  finger. 

Some  minute  animals  feed  though  they  have  no  mouths. 

Roads  are  built  that  travelers  may  be  accommodated. 

Shakespeare  died  where  he  was  born. 


150  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Supply  noun  clauses  and  make  complete  sentences  out 
of  the  following  expressions  :  — 

is  a  well-known  fact.     The  fact  was .     Ben  Franklin 

said . 


Contract  the  dependent  clauses  of  these  sentences  into 
phrases :  — 

Arnold  was  fearful  that  he  should  be  detected. 

When  one  has  eaten  honey,  one's  tea  seems  to  be  without  sugar. 

Cairo  is  situated  where  the  Ohio  joins  the  Mississippi. 

The  effect  of  friction  is,  that  it  heats  the  substances  rubbed. 

He  had  no  place  where  he  might  lay  his  head. 

That  we  should  defend  ourselves  is  a  duty. 

If  the  farmer  allows  the  weeds  to  grow  unchecked,  he  will  gather 
no  harvest. 

Mohammedans  promise  that  they  will  obey  the  teachings  of  the 
Koran. 

Dark  clothes  are  warm  in  summer,  because  they  absorb  the  rays 
of  the  sun. 


LESSON  69. 
GENERAL   REVIEW. 

What  is  a  letter  ?  Give  the  name  and  the  sound  of  each  of  the 
letters  in  the  three  following  words :  letters,  name,  sound.  Into 
what  classes  are  letters  divided?  Define  each  class.  Subdivide  the 
consonants.  Name  the  vowels.  What  is  a  word?  What  is  verbal 
language  ?  What  is  English  Grammar  ?  What  is  a  sentence  ?  What 
is  the  difference  between  the  two  expressions,  ripe  apples  and  apples 
are  ripe  ?    What  two  parts  must  every  sentence  have  ?     Define  each. 


General  Review.  151 


What  is  the  analysis  of  a  sentence  ?  What  is  a  diagram  ?  What  are 
parts  of  speech?  How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there?  Give  an 
example  of  each.  What  is  a  noun  ?  What  is  a  verb  ?  What  must 
every  predicate  contain  I  What  is  a  pronoun  ?  What  is  a  modifier '? 
WThat  is  an  adjective?  What  adjectives  are  sometimes  called  articles? 
When  is  a  used  ?  When  is  an  used  ?  Illustrate.  Give  an  example 
of  one  modifier  joined  to  another.  What  is  an  adverb  ?  What  is  a 
phrase  ?  A  compound  phrase  ?  A  complex  ?  What  is  a  preposition  ? 
What  is  a  conjunction  ?  What  is  an  interjection  ?  Give  four  rules 
for  the  use  of  capital  letters  (Lessons  8,  15,  19,  37).  Give  two  rules 
for  the  use  of  the  period,  one  for  the  exclamation  point,  and  one  for 
the  interrogation  point  (Lessons  8,  37,  63). 


LESSON   70. 
GENERAL   REVIEW. 

What  is  an  object  complement  ?  What  is  an  attribute  complement  ? 
How  does  a  participle  differ  from  a  predicate  verb  ?  Illustrate.  What 
offices  does  an  infinitive  phrase  perform  ?  Illustrate.  How  are  sen- 
tences classified  with  respect  to  form  ?  Give  an  example  of  each  class. 
What  is  a  simple  sentence  ?  What  is  a  clause  ?  What  is  a  dependent 
clause?  What  is  an  independent  clause?  What  is  a  complex  sen- 
tence ?  What  is  a  compound  sentence  ?  How  are  sentences  classified 
with  respect  to  meaning  ?  Give  an  example  of  each  class.  What  is  a 
declarative  sentence  ?  What  is  an  interrogative  sentence  ?  WThat  is  an 
imperative  sentence  ?  What  is  an  exclamatory  sentence  ?  What  differ- 
ent offices  may  a  noun  perform  ?  Ans.  —  A  noun  may  be  used  as  a 
subject,  as  an  object  complement,  as  an  attribute  complement,  as  a 
possessive  modifier,  as  an  explanatory  modifier,  as  the  principal  word 
in  a  prepositional  phrase,  and  it  may  be  used  independently.   Illustrate 


152  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


each  use.  What  are  sometimes  substituted  for  nouns  ?  Ans.  —  Pro- 
nouns, phrases,  and  clauses.  Illustrate.  What  is  the  principal  office 
of  a  verb  ?  What  offices  may  be  performed  by  a  phrase  1  What,  by  a 
clause  ?  What  different  offices  may  an  adjective  perform  I  What  parts 
of  a  speech  may  connect  clauses'?  Ans.  —  Conjunctions,  adverbs,  and 
pronouns  (Lessons  62,  59,  and  57).  Give  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
comma  (Lessons  37,  54,  57).  Give  and  illustrate  the  directions  for 
using  adjectives  and  adverbs,  for  placing  phrases,  for  using  preposi- 
tions, and  for  using  negatives  (Lessons  40,  41). 

To  the  Teacher.  — For  additional  review,  see  "  Scheme,"  p.  267. 

Composition  of  Sentences  and  of  Paragraphs, 
selection  from  beecher. 

Overwork  almost  always  ends  in  weakening  the  digestive  organs. 
There  are  those  who  overtax  their  minds  through  months  and  years, 
forgetful  that  there  is  a  close  connection  between  overwork  and  dys- 
pepsia. Every  one  should  remember  that  there  is  a  point  beyond 
which  he  cannot  urge  his  brain  without  harm  to  his  stomach ;  and 
that,  when  he  loses  his  stomach,  he  loses  the  very  citadel  of  health. 
The  whole  body  is  renewed  from  the  blood,  and  the  blood  is  made 
from  the  food  taken  into  the  stomach.  The  power  of  the  blood  to 
renew  bone  and  brain  and  muscle  depends  upon  a  good  digestion. 

Too  little  sleep  is  fatal  to  health.  Perhaps  you  have  to  work  hard 
all  day ;  but  that  is  no  reason  wrhy  you  should  resolve,  "  If  I  cannot 
have  pleasure  by  day,  I  will  have  it  at  night.''  You  are  taking  the 
very  substance  of  your  body  when  you  burn  the  lamp  of  pleasure  till 
one  or  two  o'clock  in  the  morning.  God  has  made  sleep  to  be  a  sponge 
with  which  to  rub  out  fatigue.  A  man's  roots  are  planted  in  night,  as 
a  tree's  are  planted  in  soil,  and  out  of  it  he  should  come,  at  waking, 
with  fresh  growth  and  bloom.  As  a  rule,  you  should  take  eight  hours 
of  the  twenty-four,  for  sleep. 


Composition.  153 


The  Uses  of  Words  and  Groups  of  Wordo.  —  In  the  exercises 
under  the  selection  from  the  Brothers  Grimm  what  dia  you  learn 
about  there  as  used  twice  in  the  second  sentence  above  ?  What  does 
those  mean?  What  long  adjective  clause  is  joined  to  those  by  who? 
Does  this  clause  read  so  closely  as  not  to  need  a  comma  before  who  ? 
Does  forgetful  describe  the  persons  represented  by  who  1  Why  is  a 
comma  used  before  forgetful?  You  learned  in  a  preceding  exercise 
that  a  noun  may  do  the  work  of  an  adverb  phrase  without  the  help 
of  a  preposition.  A  noun  clause  may  do  the  same.  The  adjective 
forgetful  is  modified  by  the  noun  clause,  that  .  .  .  dyspepsia.  If 
we  say  forgetful  of  the  fact,  we  see  that  the  noun  clause  means  the 
same  as  fact  and  has  the  same  office.  What  two  long  noun  clauses 
are  used  to  complete  should  remember  ?  What  conjunction  introduces 
each  of  these  clauses?  What  conjunction  joins  them  together?  WThat 
mark  of  punctuation  between  ?  If  one  of  these  noun  clauses  were  not 
■4tself  divided  into  clauses  by  the  comma,  would  the  semicolon  be 
needed?  The  clause,  beyond  .  .  .  stomach,  goes  with  what  word? 
When  .  .  .  stomach  modifies  what  verb?  Classify  the  sentences 
of  this  paragraph  as  simple,  complex,  or  compound. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  We  have  here  treated  informally  some  difficult 
points.  Perhaps  these  may  be  better  understood  when  the  book  is  re- 
viewed. 

The  Various  Obj  ects  Writers  Have.  —  From  your  study  of  the 
preceding  selections  you  learn  that  a  writer  may  have  any  one  of 
several  objects  in  writing.  He  may  wish  simply  to  instruct  the  reader, 
as  does  Darwin  in  what  he  says  of  earthworms.  He  may  wish  merely 
to  amuse  the  reader,  as  does  Mr.  Habberton  in  our  extract  from  "  Helen's 
Babies."  He  may  wish  only  to  put  before  us  a  picture  which,  like 
that  of  George  Eliot's,  shall  afford  delight.  Or  he  may  wish  to  get 
hold  of  what  we  call  our  wills  and  lead  us  to  do  something,  perform 
some  duty.    This  is  what  the  story  from  the  Brothers  Grimm  aims  at. 


154  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


And  you  saw  how  it  does  this  —  by  working  on  our  feelings.  There 
are  at  least  these  four  objects  that  a  writer  may  propose  to  himself. 
Which  of  these  four  objects  has  Mr.  Beecher  in  the  paragraphs  we 
quote  ?  Does  he  instruct  1  Does  he  try  to  get  us  to  do  something  ? 
Would  it  help  you  to  have  clearly  before  you  from  the  beginning  the 
object  you  are  seeking  to  accomplish  J 

Figurative  Expressions.  —  In  these  paragraphs  Mr.  Beecher  calls 
a  man's  stomach  the  citadel  of  health,  and  sleep  a  sponge  to  rub  out 
fatigue  with,  and  says  a  man's  roots  are  planted  in  night.  He  does 
not  use  these  words  citadel,  sponge,  and  roots  in  their  first  or  common 
meaning.  He  uses  them  in  what  we  call  a  figurative  sense.  He  means 
to  say  that  a  man's  stomach  is  to  him  what  a  fortress  is  to  soldiers,  a 
source  of  strength ;  that  in  sleep  fatigue  disappears  as  do  figures  on  a 
slate  or  blackboard  when  a  wet  sponge  is  drawn  across  them;  and 
that  a  man  gets  out  of  night  what  a  tree's  roots  draw  out  of  the  soil  — 
nourishment  and  vigor.  Such  figurative  uses  of  words  give  strength* 
and  beauty  to  style. 

ORIGINAL    COMPOSITION. 

In  the  paragraphs  quoted  above,  you  were  told  of  the  effects  on 
health  of  overwork  and  of  insufficient  sleep.  Perhaps  you  can  write 
of  exercise,  of  proper  food,  of  clothes,  or  of  some  other  things  on  which 
health  may  depend. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  If  the  early  presentation  of  an  outline  of  technical 
grammar  is  not  compelled  by  a  prescribed  course  of  study,  we  should  here 
introduce  a  series  of  lessons  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  paragraphs, 
and  themes. 

Here  is  an  exercise  in  combining  simple  statements  into  complex  and 
compound  sentences,  and  in  resolving  complex  and  compound  sentences 
into  simple  sentences.  In  combining  statements,  it  is  an  excellent  prac- 
tice for  the  pupil  to  contract,  expand,  transpose,  and  to  substitute  other 
words.  They  thus  learn  to  express  the  same  thought  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
Any  reading-book  or  history  will  furnish  good  material  for  such  practice. 


Composition.  155 


Combine  in  as  many  ways  as  possible  each  of  the  follow- 
ing groups  of  sentences  :  — 

Example.  —  This  man  is  to  be  pitied.     He  has  no  friends. 

1.  This  man  has  no  friends,  and  he  is  to  be  pitied. 

2.  This  man  is  to  be  pitied,  because  he  has  no  friends. 

3.  Because  this  man  has  no  friends,  he  is  to  be  pitied. 

4.  This  man,  who  has  no  friends,  is  to  be  pitied. 

5.  This  man,  having  no  friends,  is  to  be  pitied. 

6.  This  man,  without  friends,  is  to  be  pitied. 

7.  This  friendless  man  deserves  our  pity. 

1.  The  ostrich  is  unable  to  fly.  It  has  not  wings  in  proportion  to 
its  body. 

2.  Egypt  is  a  fertile  country.     It  is  annually  inundated  by  the  Nile. 

3.  The  nerves  are  little  threads,  or  fibers.  They  extend  from  the 
brain.     They  spread  over  the  whole  body. 

4.  John  Gutenberg  published  a  book.  It  was  the  first  book 
known  to  have  been  printed  on  a  printing-press.  He  was  aided  by 
the  patronage  of  John  Faust.  He  published  it  in  1455.  He  pub- 
lished it  in  the  city  of  Mentz. 

5.  The  human  body  is  a  machine.  A  watch  is  delicately  con- 
structed. This  machine  is  more  delicately  constructed.  A  steam- 
engine  is  complicated.  This  machine  is  more  complicated.  A 
steam-engine  is  wonderful.     This  machine  is  more  wonderful. 

You  see  that  short  sentences  closely  related  in  mean- 
ing may  be  improved  by  being  combined.  But  young 
writers  frequently  use  too  many  ands  and  other  connect- 
ives, and  make  their  sentences  too  long. 

Long  sentences  should  be  broken  up  into  short  ones 
when  the  relations  of  the  parts  are  not  clear. 


156  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


As  clauses  may  be  joined  to  form  sentences,  so,  as  you 
have  learned,  sentences  may  be  united  to  make  paragraphs. 

The  first  word  of  a  paragraph  should,  as  you  have  seen, 
begin  a  new  line,  and  should  be  written  a  little  farther  to 
the  right  than  the  first  words  of  other  lines. 

Combine  the  following  statements  into  sentences  and 
paragraphs,  and  make  of  them  a  complete  composition,  or 
theme :  — 

Water  is  a  liquid.  It  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  It 
covers  about  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  takes  the 
form  of  ice.  It  takes  the  form  of  snow.  It  takes  the  form  of  vapor. 
The  air  is  constantly  taking  up  water  from  rivers,  lakes,  oceans,  and 
from  damp  ground.  Cool  air  contains  moisture.  Heated  air  con- 
tains more  moisture.  Heated  air  becomes  lighter.  It  rises.  It 
becomes  cool.  The  moisture  is  condensed  into  fine  particles.  Clouds 
are  formed.  They  float  across  the  sky.  The  little  particles  unite  and 
form  raindrops.  They  sprinkle  the  dry  fields.  At  night  the  grass 
and  flowers  become  cool.  The  air  is  not  so  cool.  The  warm  air 
touches  the  grass  and  flowers.  It  is  chilled.  It  loses  a  part  of  its 
moisture.  Drops  of  dew  are  formed.  Water  has  many  uses.  Men 
and  animals  drink  it.  Trees  and  plants  drink  it.  They  drink  it 
by  means  of  their  leaves  and  roots.  Water  is  a  great  purifier.  It 
cleanses  our  bodies.  It  washes  our  clothes.  It  washes  the  dust  from 
the  leaves  and  the  flowers.  Water  is  a  great  worker.  It  floats  ves- 
sels. It  turns  the  wheels  of  mills.  It  is  converted  into  steam.  It 
is  harnessed  to  mighty  engines.  It  does  the  work  of  thousands  of 
men  and  horses. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Condensed  statements  of  facts,  taken  from  some 
book  not  in  the  hands  of  your  pupils,  may  be  read  to  them,  and  they  may 
be  required  to  expand  and  combine  these  and  group  them  into  paragraphs. 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH   SUBD 


LESSON  71. 
CLASSES  OF  NOUNS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  Hereafter,  in  the  "  Hints, " 
we  shall  drop  the  dialogue  form,  but  we  expect  the 
teacher  to  continue  it.  A  poor  teacher  does  all  the  talk- 
ing, a  good  teacher  makes  the  pupils  talk. 

The  teacher  may  here  refer  to  his  talk  about  the  classi- 
fication of  birds,  and  show  that,  after  birds  have  been 
arranged  in  great  classes,  such  as  robins,  sparrows,  etc., 
these  classes  will  need  to  be  subdivided  if  the  pupil  is  to 
be  made  thoroughly  acquainted  with  this  department  of 
the  animal  kingdom.  So,  after  grouping  words  into  the 
eight  great  classes,  called  Parts  of  Speech,  these  classes 
may  be  divided  into  other  classes.  For  instance,  take  the 
two  nouns  city  and  Brooklyn.  The  word  city  is  the  com- 
mon name  of  all  places  of  a  certain  class,  but  the  word 
Brooklyn  is  the  proper  or  particular  name  of  an  individual 
of  this  class.  We  have  here  then  two  kinds  of  nouns 
which  we  call  Common  and  Proper. 

Let  the  teacher  write  a  number  of  nouns  on  the  board, 

157 


158  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


and  require  the  pupil  to  classify  them  and  give  the  rea- 
sons for  the  classification. 

To  prepare  the  pupil  thoroughly  for  this  work,  the 
teacher  will  find  it  necessary  to  explain  why  such  words 
as  music,  mathematics,  knowledge,  etc.  are  common  nouns. 
Music,  e.g.,  is  not  a  proper  noun,  for  it  is  not  a  name 
given  to  an  individual  thing  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
things  of  the  same  class.  There  are  no  other  things  of 
the  same  class  —  it  forms  a  class  by  itself.  So  we  call  the 
noun  music  a  common  noun. 

CLASSES   OF  PRONOUNS. 

The  speaker  seldom  refers  to  himself  by  name,  but  uses 
the  pronoun  I  instead.  In  speaking  to  a  person,  we  often 
use  the  pronoun  you  instead  of  his  name.  In  speaking  of  a 
person  or  thing  that  has  been  mentioned  before,  we  say  he 
or  she  or  it.  These  words  that  by  their  form  indicate  the 
speaker,  the  hearer,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  are 
called  Personal  Pronouns  (Lesson  19). 

Give  sentences  containing  nouns  repeated,  and  require 
the  pupils  to  improve  these  sentences  by  substituting 
pronouns. 

When  we  wish  to  refer  to  an  object  that  has  been  men- 
tioned in  another  clause,  and  at  the  same  time  to  connect 
the  clauses,  Ave  use  a  class  of  pronouns  called  Relative 
Pronouns.  Let  the  teacher  illustrate  by  using  the  pro- 
nouns who,  which,  and  that  (Lesson  57). 


Classes  of  Nouns.  1591 


When  we  wish  to  ask  about  anything  whose  name  is 
unknown,  we  use  a  class  of  pronouns  called  Interrogative 
Pronouns.  The  interrogative  pronoun  stands  for  the 
unknown  name  and  asks  for  it ;  as,  "  Who  comes  here  ? " 
"  What  is  this  ?  " 

"Both  men  were  wrong/'  Let  us  omit  men  and  say, 
"Both  were  wrong."  You  see  the  meaning  is  not 
changed  —  both  is  here  equivalent  to  both  men,  that  is, 
it  performs  the  office  of  an  adjective  and  that  of  a  noun. 
It  is  therefore  an  Adjective  Pronoun.  Let  the  teacher 
further  illustrate  the  office  of  the  adjective  pronoun  by 
using  the  words  each,  all,  many,  some,  such,  etc. ' 

Definitions, 
classes  of  nouns. 

A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  which  belongs  to  all  things  of  a 
class. 

A  Proper  Noun  is  the  particular  name  of  an  individual. 

CLASSES    OF    PRONOUNS. 

A  Personal  Pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  by  its  form  denotes 
the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of. 

A  Relative  Pronoun  is  one  that  relates  to  some  preceding 
word  or  words  and  connects  clauses. 

An  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  one  with  which  a  question  is 
asked. 

An  Adjective  Pronoun  is  one  that  performs  the  offices  of  both 
an  adjective  and  a  noun. 


J.60  Graded   Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON   72, 
COMPOSITION. 


Build  each  of  the  following  groups  of  nouns  into  a  sen- 
tence.    See  Rule,  Lesson  15. 

webster  cares  office  Washington  repose  home  marshfield. 

george  Washington  commander  army  revolution  president  united 
states  Westmoreland  state  Virginia  month  february. 

san  francisco  city  port  pacific  trade  united  states  lines  steamships 
sandwich  islands  japan  china  australia. 

Write  five  simple  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  the 
five  personal  pronouns:  I,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  and  it. 

Write  four  complex  sentences,  each  containing  one  of 
the  four  relative  pronouns:  who,  which,  that,  and  what. 

What  is  used  as  a  relative  pronoun  when  the  antecedent  is 
omitted.  The  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands  is  called  its  Ante- 
cedent. When  we  express  the  antecedent,  we  use  which  or  that. 
"  I  shall '  do  what  is  required ; "  "I  shall  do  the  thing  which  is 
required,  or  that  is  required." 

Build  three  interrogative  sentences,  each  containing 
one  of  the  three  interrogative  pronouns  who,  which,  and 
what. 

Build  eight  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  the  adjec- 
tive pronouns  few,  many,  much,  some,  this,  these,  that, 
those. 


Classes  of  Adjectives.  161 


LESSON    73. 
CLASSES  OF  ADJECTIVES, 


Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  When  I  say  large,  rounds 
sweet,  yellow  oranges,  the  words  large,  round,  sweet,  and 
yellow  modify  the  word  oranges  by  telling  the  kind,  and 
limit  the  application  of  the  word  to  oranges  of  that  kind. 

When  I  say  this  orange,  yonder  orange,  one  orange,  the 
words  this,  yonder,  and  one  do  not  tell  the  kind,  but  simply 
point  out  or  number  the  orange,  and  limit  the  application 
of  the  word  to  the  orange  pointed  out  or  numbered. 

Adjectives  of  the  first  class  describe  by  giving  a  quality, 
and  so  are  called  Descriptive  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  of  the  second  class  define  by  pointing  out  or 
numbering,  and  so  are  called  Definitive  Adjectives. 

Let  the  teacher  write  nouns  on  the  board,  and  require  the  pupils  to 
modify  them  by  appropriate  descriptive  and  definitive  adjectives. 

Definitions. 

A  Descriptive  Adjective  is  one  that  modifies  by  expressing 
quality. 

A  Definitive  Adjective  is  one  that  modifies  by  pointing  out, 
numbering,  or  denoting  quantity. 

Composition. 

Place  the  following  adjectives  in  two  columns,  one 
headed  descriptive  and  the  other  definitive,  then  build 
simple  sentences  in  which  they  shall  be  employed  as  modi- 


162  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


fiers.       Find  out  the   meaning  of  each  word  before  you 
use  it :  — 

Round,  frolicsome,  first,  industrious,  jolly,  idle,  skillful,  each,  the, 
faithful,  an,  kind,  one,  tall,  ancient,  modern,  dancing,  mischievous, 
stationary,  nimble,  several,  slanting,  parallel,  oval,  every. 

Build  simple  sentences  in  which  the  following  descrip- 
tive adjectives  shall  be  employed  as  attribute  comple- 
ments.    Let  some  of  these    attributes   be  compound :  — 

Restless,  impulsive,  dense,  rare,  gritty,  sluggish,  dingy,  selfish,  clear, 
cold,  sparkling,  slender,  graceful,  hungry,  friendless. 

Build  simple  sentences  in  which  the  following  descrip- 
tive adjectives  shall  be  employed.  Some  of  these  adjec- 
tives have  the  form  of  participles,  and  others  are  derived 
from  proper  nouns  :  — 

Shining,  moving,  swaying,  bubbling,  American,  German,  French, 
Swiss,  Irish,  Chinese. 

Capital  Letter  —  Rule.  —  An  Adjective  derived  from  a 
proper  noun  must  begin  with  a  capital  letter, 


LESSON  74. 
CLASSES    OF    VERBS. 


Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — "The  man  caught"  makes 
no  complete  assertion  and  is  not  a  sentence.  If  we  add 
the  object  complement  fish,  we  complete  the  assertion  and 


Classes  of  Verbs.  163 


form  a  sentence  —  "The  man  caught  fish."  The  action 
expressed  by  caught  passes  over  from  the  man  to  the  fish. 
Transitive  means  passing  over,  and  hence  all  those  verbs  that 
express  an  action  that  passes  over  from  the  doer  to  some- 
thing which  receives  are  called  Transitive  Verbs. 

"  Fish  swim."  The  verb  swim  does  not  require  an  object 
to  complete  the  sentence.  No  action  passes  from  a  doer 
to  a  receiver.  These  verbs  which  express  action  that  does 
not  pass  over  to  a  receiver,  and  all  those  which  do  not 
express  action  at  all,  but  simply  being  or  state  of  being* 
are  called  Intransitive  Verbs. 

Let  the  teacher  write  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs 
on  the  board,  and  require  the  pupils  to  distinguish  them* 

When  I  say,  "  I  crush  the  worm,"  I  express  an  action 
that  is  going  on  now,  or  in  present  time.  "  I  crushed  the 
worm,"  expresses  an  action  that  took  place  in  past  time. 
As  tense  means  time,  we  call  the  form  crush  the  present 
tense  of  the  verb,  and  crushed  the  past  tense.  In  tho  sen- 
tence, "  The  worm  crushed'  under  my  foot  died,"  crushed, 
expressing  the  action  as  assumed,  is,  as  you  have  already 
learned,  a  participle  ;  and,  as  the  action  is  completed,  we 
call  it  a  past  participle.  Now  notice  that  ed  was  added 
to  crush,  the  verb  in  the  present  tense,  to  form  the  verb 
in  the  past  tense,  and  to  form  the  past  participle.  Most 
verbs  form  their  past  tense  and  their  past  participle  by 
adding  ed,  and  so  we  call  such  Regular  Verbs. 

"  I  see  the  man  ;  "  "  I  saw  the  man  ;  "  "  The  man  seen 


164  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


by  me  ran  away."  "  I  catch  fish  in  the  brook ;  n  "  I  caught 
fish  in  the  brook  ;  "  "  The  fish  caught  in  the  brook  tasted 
good."  Here  the  verbs  see  and  catch  do  not  form  their 
past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present, 
and  hence  we  call  them  Irregular  Verbs. 

Let  the  teacher  write  on  the  board  verbs  of  both  classes, 
and  require  the  pupils  to  distinguish  them. 

Definitions. 

classes  of  verbs  with  respect  to  meaning. 

A  Transitive  Verb  is  one  that  requires  an  object.1 

An  Intransitive  Verb  is  one  that  does  not  require  an  object. 

CLASSES    OF    VERBS    WITH    RESPECT    TO    FORM. 

A  Regular  Verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past  tense  and  past  par- 
ticiple by  adding  ed  to  the  present.2 

1  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  that  is,  the  name  of  the  receiver  of 
the  action,  may  be  the  object  complement,  or  it  may  be  the  subject ;  as, 
"  Brutus  stabbed  Ccesar"  "Ccesar  was  stabbed  by  Brutus." 

2  If  the  present  ends  in  e,  the  e  is  dropped  when  ed  is  added  ;  as  love, 
loved ;  believe,  believed. 

It  is  quite  common  to  classify  verbs  as  weak  and  strong  rather  than  as 
regular  and  irregular.  Weak  verbs  are  those  that  form  their  past  tense 
by  adding  ed  —  or  some  form  of  it,  as  d  or  t — to  the  present;  strong 
verbs  are  those  that  form  their  past  tense  by  vowel-change  alone.  The 
full  ending  of  the  past  participle  weak  is  ed,  and  of  the  past  participle 
strong  is  en. 

Regular  and  irregular,  if  used,  would  denote  those  verbs  that  (1)  do, 
and  those  that  (2)  do  not,  conform  perfectly  to  the  two  types.    Fall,  fell. 


Composition.  165 


An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  past  tense 
and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

COMPOSITION. 

Place  the  following  verbs  in  two  columns,  one  headed 
transitive  and  the  other  intransitive.  Place  the  same 
verbs  in  two  other  columns,  one  headed  regular  and  the 
other  irregular.  Build  these  verbs  into  sentences  by  sup- 
plying a  subject  to  each  intransitive  verb,  and  a  subject 
and  an  object  to  each  transitive  verb :  — 

Vanish, .  gallop,  bite,  promote,  contain,  produce,  provide,  veto,  se- 
cure, scramble,  rattle,  draw. 

Arrange  the  following  verbs  as  before,  and  then  build 
them  into  sentences  by  supplying  a  subject  and  a  noun 
attribute  to  each  intransitive  verb,  and  a  subject  and  an 
object  to  each  transitive  verb  :  — 

Degrade,  gather,  know,  was,  became,  is. 

A  verb  may  be  transitive  in  one  sentence  and  intransi- 
tive in  another.     Use  the  following  verbs  both  ways  :  — 

Model.  —  The  wren  sings  sweetly. 

The  wren  sings  a,  pretty  little  song. 

Bend,  ring,  break,  dash,  move. 

fallen  would  be  a  regular  strong  verb  ;  and  walk,  walked,  walked,  a  regu- 
lar weak  verb.  Wear,  wore,  worn  would  be  an  irregular  strong  verb ; 
and  creep,  crept,  crept,  an  irregular  weak  verb. 


166  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON   75. 
CLASSES   OF  ADVERBS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  When  I  say,  "  He  will 
come  soon,  or  presently,  or  often,  or  early,"  I  am  using,  to 
modify  will  come,  words  which  express  the  time  of  coming. 
These  and  all  such  adverbs  we  call  Adverbs  of  Time. 

"He  will  come  up,  or  hither,  or  here,  or  back"  Here  I 
use,  to  modify  will  come,  words  which  express  place.  These 
and  all  such  adverbs  we  call  Adverbs  of  Place. 

When  I  say,  "  The  weather  is  so  cold,  or  very  cold,  or 
intensely  cold,"  the  words  so,  very,  and  intensely  modify  the 
adjective  cold  by  expressing  the  degree  of  coldness.  These 
and  all  such  adverbs  we  call  Adverbs  of  Degree. 

When  I  say,  "  He  spoke  freely,  wisely,  and  well,"  the 
words  freely,  wisely,  and  well  tell  how  or  in  what  manner 
he  spoke.     All  such  adverbs  we  call  Adverbs  of  Manner. 

Let  the  teacher  place  adverbs  on  the  board,  and  require 
the  pupil  to  classify  them. 

Definitions. 

Adverbs  of  Time  are  those  that  generally  answer  the  ques- 
tion, When  ? 

Adverbs  of  Place  are  those  that  generally  answer  the  question, 
Where? 

Adverbs  of  Degree  are  those  that  generally  answer  the  ques- 
tion, To  what  extent? 

Adverbs  of  Manner  are  those  that  generally  answer  the  ques- 
tion, In  what  way  ? 


Classes  of  Conjunctions.  167 


Composition. 

Place  the  following  adverbs  in  the  four  classes  we  have 
made  —  if  the  classification  be  perfect,  there  will  be  five 
words  in  each  column  —  then  build  each  adverb  into  a 
simple  sentence:  — 

Partly,  only,  too,  wisely,  now,  here,  when,  very,  well,  where,  nobly, 
already,  seldom,  more,  ably,  away,  always,  not,  there,  out. 

Some  adverbs,  as  you  have  already  learned,  modify  two 
verbs,  and  thus  connect  the  two  clauses  in  which  these 
verbs  occur.    Such  adverbs  are  called  Conjunctive  Adverbs. 

The  following  dependent  clauses  are  introduced  by  con- 
junctive adverbs.  Build  them  into  complex  sentences  by 
supplying  independent  clauses :  — 

when  the  ice  is  smooth  ;  while  we  sleep ;  before 

winter  comes ; where  the  reindeer  lives ; wherever  you  go. 


LESSON  76. 
CLASSES  OF   CONJUNCTIONS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  "  Frogs,  antelopes,  and  kan- 
garoos can  jump."  Here  the  three  nouns  are  of  the  same 
rank  in  the  sentence.  All  are  subjects  of  can  jump. 
"  War  has  ceased,  and  peace  has  come"  In  this  compound 
sentence,  there  are  two  clauses  of  the  same  rank.  The 
word  and  connects  the  subjects  of  can  jump,  in  the  first 
sentence;  and  the  two  clauses,  in  the  second.     All  words 


168  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


that  connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  of  the  same  rank 
are  called  Coordinate  Conjunctions. 

"If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now;"  " I will 
go,  because  you  need  me"  Here  if  joins  the  clause,  you 
have  tears,  as  a  modifier  expressing  condition,  to  the  inde- 
pendent clause,  "prepare  to  shed  them  now "  ;  and  because 
connects  "you  need  me,"  as  a  modifier  expressing  reason 
or  cause,  to  the  independent  clause,  "  I will  go"  These 
and  all  such  conjunctions  as  connect  dependent  clauses  to 
clauses  of  a  higher  rank  are  called  Subordinate  Conjunc- 
tions. 

Let  the  teacher  illustrate  the  meaning  and  use  of  the 
words  subordinate  and  coordinate. 

Definitions. 

Coordinate  Conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses  of  the  same  rank. 

Subordinate  Conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  clauses  of  differ- 
ent rank. 

Composition. 

Build  four  short  sentences  for  each  of  the  three  coordi- 
nate conjunctions  that  follow.  In  the  first,  let  the  con- 
junction be  used  to  connect  principal  parts  of  a  sentence; 
in  the  second,  to  connect  word  modifiers;  in  the  third,  to 
connect  phrase  modifiers;  and  in  the  fourth,  to  connect 
independent  clauses :  — 

And,  or,  "but. 


Classes  of  Connectives.  169 


Write  four  short  complex  sentences  containing  the  four 
subordinate  conjunctions  that  follow.     Let  the  first  be 
used  to  introduce  a  noun  clause,  and  the  others  to  connect 
adverb  clauses  to  independent  clauses :  — 
That,  for,  if,  because. 

LIST    OF    CONNECTIVES. 

Remark.  —  Some  of  the  connectives  below  are  conjunctions  proper : 
some  are  relative  pronouns ;  and  some  are  adverbs  or  adverb  phrases 
which,  in  addition  to  their  office  as  modifiers,  may,  in  the  absence  of 
the   conjunction,  take   its  office  upon  themselves    and  connect    the 
clauses. 

Coordinate  Connectives. 

Copulative. — And,  both  .  .  .  and,  as  well  as1  are  conjunctions 
proper.  Accordingly,  also,  besides,  consequently,  furthermore, 
hence,  likewise,  moreover,  now,  so,  then,  and  therefore  are  conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

Adversative.  —  But  and  ivhereas  are  conjunctions  proper.  How- 
ever, nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  on  the  contrary,  on  the  other 
hand,  still,  and  yet  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Alternative.  —  Neither,  nor,  or,  either  .  .  .  or,  and  neither 
.  -.  .  nor  are  conjunctions  proper.  Else  and  otherwise  are  conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

Subordinate  Connectives. 

connectives  of  adjective  clauses. 

That,  what,  whatever,  which,  whichever,  who,  and  whoever  are 
relative  pronouns.  When,  where,  whereby,  wherein,  and  why  are 
conjunctive  adverbs. 

1  The  as  well  as  in  u  He,  as  well  as  I,  went "  ;  and  not  that  in  "He  is 
as  well  as  I  am." 


170  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


CONNECTIVES    OF    ADVERB    CLAUSES. 

Time. — After,  as,  before,  ere,  since,  till,  until,  when,  whenever, 
while ,  and  whilst  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Place.  —  Whence,  where,  and  ivherever  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Degree.  —  As,  than,  that,  and  the  are  conjunctive  adverbs,  cor- 
relative with  adjectives  or  adverbs. 

Manner.  —  As  is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  correlative  often  with  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb. 

Heal  Cause.  —  As,  because,  for,  since,  and  whereas  are  conjunc- 
tions proper. 

Evidence.  —  Because,  for,  and  since  are  conjunctions  proper. 

Purpose.  —  In  order  that,  lest  ( =  that  not),  that,  and  so  that  are 
conjunctions  proper. 

Condition.  —  Except,  if,  in  case  that,  on  condition  that,  pro- 
vided, provided  that,  and  unless  are  conjunctions  proper. 

Concession.  — Although,  if  (=  even  if),  notivithstanding,  though, 
and  ivhether  are  conjunctions  proper.  However  is  a  conjunctive 
adverb.  Whatever,  whichever,  and  whoever  are  relative  pronouns 
used  indefinitely. 

CONNECTIVES    OF   NOUN    CLAUSES. 

If,  lest,  that,  and  whether  are  conjunctions  proper.  What,  which, 
and  who  are  pronouns  introducing  questions ;  how,  when,  whence, 
where,  and  why  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 


LESSON   77. 
REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

What  new  subject  begins  with  Lesson  74 1  Name  and  define  the 
different  classes  of  nouns.  Illustrate  by  examples  the  difference  be- 
tween  common   nouns   and   proper   nouns.      Name  and   define  the 


Composition.  171 


different  classes  of  pronouns.  Can  the  pronoun  I  be  used  to  stand 
for  the  one  spoken  to?  —  the  one  spoken  of?  Does  the  relative  pro- 
noun distinguish  by  its  form  the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  and  the 
one  spoken  of?  Illustrate.  What  office  is  performed  by  a  relative 
pronoun  besides  that  of  representing  some  antecedent  noun  or  pro- 
noun? Illustrate.  Can  any  other  class  of  pronouns  be  used  to 
connect  clauses  ? 

For  what  do  interrogative  pronouns  stand?     Illustrate.     Where 
may  the  antecedent  of  an  interrogative  pronoun  generally  be  found 
Ans.  —  The  antecedent  of  an  interrogative  pronoun  may  generally  be 
found  in  the  answer  to  the  question. 

Name  and  define  the  different  classes -of  adjectives.  Give  an  ex- 
ample of  each  class.  Name  and  define  the  different  classes  of  verbs, 
made  with  respect  to  their  meaning.  Give  an  example  of  each  class. 
Name  and  define  the  different  classes  of  verbs,  made  with  respect  to 
their  form.     Give  an  example  of  each  class. 

Name  and  define  the  different  classes  of  adverbs.  Give  examples 
of  each  kind.  Name  and  define  the  different  classes  of  conjunctions. 
Illustrate  by  examples. 

Are  prepositions  and  interjections  subdivided?  (See  "Schemes" 
for  the  conjunction,  the  preposition,  and  the  interjection,  p.  270.) 

Composition  of  Sentences  and  of  Paragraphs, 
adapted  from  dr.  john  brown "  rab  and  his  friends." 

Rab  belonged  to  a  lost  tribe  —  there  are  no  such  dogs  now.  He 
was  old  and  gray  and  brindled ;  and  his  hair  short,  hard,  and  close, 
like  a  lion's.  He  was  as  big  as  a  Highland  bull,  and  his  body  was 
thickset.     He  must  have  weighed  ninety  pounds  at  least. 

His  large,  blunt  head  was  scarred  with  the  record  of  old  wounds,  a 
series  of  battlefields  all  over  it.  His  muzzle  was  as  black  as  night, 
his  mouth  blacker  than  any  night,  and  a  tooth  or  two,  all  he  had, 


172  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


gleamed  out  of  his  jaws  of  darkness.  One  eye  was  out,  one  ear 
cropped  close.  The  remaining  eye  had  the  power  of  two ;  and  above 
it,  and  in  constant  communication  with  it,  was  a  tattered  rag  of  an 
ear  that  was  forever  unfurling  itself  like  an  old  flag. 

And  then  that  bud  of  a  tail,  about  an  inch  long,  if  it  could  in  any 
sense  be  said  to  be  long,  being  as  broad  as  it  was  long  !  The  mobility 
of  it,  its  expressive  twinklings  and  winkings,  and  the  intercommuni- 
cations between  the  eye,  the  ear,  and  it  were  of  the  oddest  and 
swiftest. 

Rab  had  the  dignity  and  simplicity  of  great  size.  Having  fought 
his  way  all  along  the  road  to  absolute  supremacy,  he  was  as  mighty 
in  his  own  line  as  Julius  Caesar  or  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  his,  and 
he  had  the  gravity  of  all  great  fighters. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  On  the  uses  of  words  we  suggest  exercises  similar 
to  those  preceding.  Before  attempting  this  it  may  be  well  to  let  the  pupils 
go  over  these  condensed  expressions  and  supply  the  words  necessary  to 
the  analysis.  For  instance,  in  the  first  paragraph  hair  may  be  followed  by 
was  and  Highland  bull  by  is  big.  In  the  next  paragraph  wounds  may  be 
followed  by  marking,  as  night  by  is  black,  etc.  In  the  third  paragraph 
and  then  may  be  followed  by  there  was,  etc.  The  pupils  will  determine 
whether  supplying  these  words  makes  the  description  stronger  or  weaker. 

Pupils  may  note  especially  the  offices  of  nouns,  verbs,  and  adjec- 
tives. This  selection  abounds  in  descriptive  nouns  and  verbs  that 
are  particularly  well  chosen.     Let  the  pupils  point  out  such. 

The  Description.  —  How  does  the  description  above  impress  you  ? 
Are  only  characteristic  parts  and  features  selected?  Are  these  few 
features  enough  to  give  you  a  distinct  and  vivid  picture  of  Rab? 
What  comparisons  do  you  find  ?  How  do  they  help  ?  Pick  out  some 
words  or  phrases  that  seem  to  you  very  expressive.  Find  some  words 
that  are  used,  not  in  their  first  or  common  sense,  but  in  a  figurative 
gense.     How  do  they  help  ? 


Review-Composition.  173 


Paragraphs.  —  Which  paragraph  puts  before  you  the  dog  as  a 
whole?  Where  must  this  paragraph  naturally  stand  ?  Why?  Which 
paragraph  describes  Eab's  character?  What  does  each  of  the  other 
paragraphs  describe?  If  you  think  the  arrangement  of  paragraphs 
above  is  the  best,  tell  why. 

Make  a  framework  for  this  description. 

ORIGINAL     COMPOSITION. 

Write  a  description  of  some  animal  which  you  have  closely  observed 
and  in  which  you  are  interested.  Be  careful  to  pick  out  leading  or 
characteristic  features  that  will  bring  others  into  the  reader's  imagina- 
tion.    First  prepare  a  framework. 

REVIEW  —  COMPOSITION. 

We  recommend  that  the  teacher  select  some  short  article 
containing  valuable  information  and  break  up  each  para- 
graph into  short,  disconnected  expressions.  One  paragraph 
at  a  time  may  be  put  on  the  board  for  the  pupils  to  copy. 
The  general  subject  may  be  given,  and  the  pupils  may  be 
required  to  find  a  proper  heading  for  the  paragraph.  The 
different  ways  of  connecting  the  expressions  may  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  class.  By  contracting,  expanding,  and 
transposing,  and  by  substituting  entirely  different  words, 
a  great  variety  of  forms  may  be  had.  (The  list  of  con- 
nectives in  Lesson  76  may  be  helpful.)  The  pupils  may 
then  combine  the  different  paragraphs  into  a  composition. 

We  give,  below,  material  for  one  composition,  or 
theme :  — 

Frog's  spawn  found  in  a  pond.  At  first  like  a  mass  of  jelly.  Eggs 
can  be  distinguished. 


174  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


In  a  few  days  curious  little  fish  are  hatched.  These  "  tadpoles  n 
are  lively.  Swim  by  means  of  long  tails.  Head  very  large  —  out  of 
proportion.  Appearance  of  all  head  and  tail.  This  creature  is  a  true 
fish.  It  breathes  water- air  by  means  of  gills.  It  has  a  two- 
chambered  heart. 

Watch  it  day  by  day.  Two  little  gills  seen.  These  soon  disap- 
pear. Hind  legs  begin  to  grow.  Tail  gets  smaller.  Two  small  arms, 
or  forelegs,  are  seen.  Remarkable  change  going  on  inside.  True 
lungs  for  breathing  air  have  been  forming.  Another  chamber  added 
to  the  heart. 

As  the  gills  grow  smaller,  it  finds  difficulty  in  breathing  water-air. 
One  fine  day  it  pokes  its  nose  out  of  the  water.  Astonished  (possibly) 
to  find  that  it  can  breathe  in  the  air.  A  new  life  has  come  upon  it. 
No  particular  reason  for  spending  all  its  time  in  water ;  crawls  out 
upon  land  \  sits  down  upon  its  haunches ;  surveys  the  world.  It  is 
no  longer  a  fish ;  has  entered  upon  a  higher  stage  of  existence ;  has 
become  a  frog. 

This  work  of  analyzing  a  composition  to  find  the  lead- 
ing thoughts  under  which  the  other  thoughts  may  be 
grouped  is  in  many  ways  a  most  valuable  discipline. 

It  teaches  the  pupil  to  compare,  to  discriminate,  to 
weigh,  to  systematize,  to  read  intelligently  and  profitably. 

The  reading-book  will  afford  excellent  practice  in  find- 
ing heads  for  paragraphs.  Such  work  is  an  essential 
preparation  for  the  reading  class. 

This  composition  work  should  serve  as  a  constant  review 
of  all  that  has  been  passed  over  in  the  text-book. 


MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 


LESSON  78. 
NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  You  have  learned  that  two 
words  may  express  a  thought,  and  that  the  thought  may 
be  varied  by  adding  modifying  words.  You  are  now  to 
learn  that  the  meaning  or  use  of  a  word  may  sometimes 
be  changed  by  simply  changing  its  form.  The  English 
language  has  lost  many  of  its  inflections,  or  forms,  so  that 
frequently  changes  in  the  meaning  and  use  of  words  are 
not  marked  by  changes  in  form.  These  changes  in  the 
form,  meaning,  and  use  of  the  parts  of  speech  we  call 
their  Modifications. 

"  The  boy  shouts  ;  "  "  The  boys  shout."  I  have  changed 
the  form  of  the  subject  boy  by  adding  an  s  to  it.  The 
meaning  has  -changed.  Boy  denotes  one  lad  ;  boys,  'two 
or  more  lads.  This  change  in  the  form  and  meaning  of 
nouns  is  called  Number.  The  word  boy,  denoting  one 
thing,  is  in  the  Singular  Number;  and  boys,  denoting 
more  than  one  thing,  is  in  the  Plural  Number. 

175 


176  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Let  the  teacher  write  other  nouns  on  the  board,  and 
require  the  pupils  to  form  the  plural  of  them. 

Definitions. 

Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  are  changes  in  their  f  orm5 
meaning,  and  use. 

NUMBER. 

Number  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
.  denotes  one  thing  or  more  than  one. 

The  Singular  Number  denotes  one  thing. 

The  Plural  Number  denotes  more  than  one  thing. 

Eule.  —  The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by  adding 
s  or  es  to  the  singular. 

Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 

Tree,  bird,  insect,  cricket,  grasshopper,  wing,  stick,  stone,  flower, 
meadow,  pasture,  grove,  worm,  bug,  cow,  eagle,  hawk,  wren,  plow9 
shovel. 

When  a  singular  noun  ends  in  the  sound  of  s,  x,  z,  sh, 
or  ch,  it  is  not  easy  to  add  the  sound  of  s,  so  es  is  added 
to  make  another  syllable. 

Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 
Guess,  box,  topaz,  lash,  birch,  compass,  fox,  Waltz,  sash,  bench, 
gas,  tax,  adz,  brush,  arch. 

Many  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  form 
the  plural  by  adding  es  without  increasing  the  number  of 
syllables. 

■ 


Nouns  and  Pronouns.  — Number.  177 


Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 
Hero,  cargo,  negro,  potato,  echo,  volcano,  mosquito,  motto. 

Common  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant 
form  the  plural  by  changing  y  into  i  and  adding  es  with- 
out increasing  the  number  of  syllables. 

Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 

Lady,  balcony,  family,  city,  country,  daisy,  fairy,  cherry,  study,  sky. 

Some  nouns  ending  in  f  and  fe  form  the  plural  by 
changing  f  or  fe  into  ves  without  increasing  the  number 
of  syllables. 

Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 

Sheaf,  loaf,  beef,  thief,  calf,  half,  elf,  shelf,  self,  wolf,  life,  knife, 
wife. 


LESSON  79. 
NUMBER. 


From  the  following  list  of  nouns,  select  and  write  in' 
separate  columns  (1)  those  that  have  no  plural;  (2) 
those  that  have  no  singular ;  (3)  those  that  are  alike  in. 
both  numbers  :  — 

Pride,  wages,  trousers,  cider,  suds,  victuals,  milk,  riches,  flax, 
courage,  sheep,  deer,  flour,  idleness,  tidings,  thanks,  ashes,  scissors, 
swine,  heathen. 


178  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


lingular. 

Plural. 

Foot, 

feet. 

Ox, 

oxen. 

Tooth, 

teeth. 

Goose, 

geese. 

The  following  nouns  have  very  irregular  plurals  —  six 
changing  the  internal  vowel,  and  two  adding  en.  Learn 
to  spell  the  plurals  :  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

Man,  men.     . 

Louse,  lice. 

Child,  children. 

Mouse,  mice. 

Learn  the  following  plurals  and  compare  them  with  the 
groups  in  the  preceding  Lesson  :  — 

Moneys,  flies,  chimneys,  valleys,  stories,  berries,  lilies,  turkeys, 
monkeys,  cuckoos,  pianos,  vetoes,  solos,  folios,  gulfs,  chiefs,  leaves, 
roofs,  scarfs,  inches. 

LESSON  80. 
NOUNS   AND  PRONOUNS.  — GENDER. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  "  The  lion  was  caged  ,  " 
"  The  lioness  was  caged."  In  the  first  sentence,  something 
is  said  about  a  male  lion  ;  and  in  the  second,  something 
is  said  about  a  female  lion.  Modifications  of  the  noun 
to  denote  the  sex  of  the  object  we  call  Gender.  Knowing 
the  sex  of  the  object,  you  know  the  gender  of  its  English 
name.  The  word  lion,  denoting  a  male  animal,  is  in  the 
Masculine  Gender  ;  and  lioness,  denoting  a  female  lion,  is 
in  the  Feminine  Gender. 

The  names  of  things  without  sex  are  in  the  Neuter 
Gender. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns.  — Gender.  179 


Such  words  as  cousin,  child,  friend,  neighbor  may  be 
either  masculine  or  feminine. 

Definitions. 

Gender  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  de- 
notes sex. 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  the  male  sex. 
The  Feminine  Gender  denotes  the  female  sex. 
The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  want  of  sex. 

The  feminine  is  distinguished  from  the  masculine  in 
three  ways  :  — 

(1)  By  a  difference  in  the  ending  of  the  nouns. 

(2)  By  different  words  in  the  compound  names. 

(3)  By  words  wholly  or  radically  different. 

Arrange  the  following  pairs  in  separate  columns  with 
reference  to  these  ways  :  — 

Abbot,  .abbess ;  actor,  actress ;  Francis,  Frances ;  Jesse,  Jessie ; 
bachelor,  maid ;  beau,  belle ;  monk,  nun  \  gander,  goose ;  adminis- 
trator, administratrix ;  baron,  baroness ;  count,  countess ;  czar,  cza- 
rina ;  don,  donna ;  boy,  girl ;  drake,  duck  ;  lord,  lady ;  nephew,  niece ; 
landlord,  landlady ;  gentleman,  gentlewoman ;  peacock,  peahen  ;  duke, 
duchess ;  hero,  heroine ;  host,  hostess ;  Jew,  Jewess ;  man-servant, 
maid-servant ;  sir,  madam ;  wizard,  witch ;  marquis,  marchioness ; 
widower,  widow ;  heir,  heiress ;  Paul,  Pauline ;  Augustus,  Augusta. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

What  new  way  of  varying  the  meaning  of  words  is  introduced  in 
Lesson  78  f  Illustrate.  What  are  modifications  of  the  parts  of  speech  ? 
What  is  number  ?     How  many  numbers  are  there  f     Name  and  define 


180  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


each.  Give  the  rule  for  forming  the  plural  of  nouns.  Illustrate  the 
variations  of  this  rule.  What  is  gender?  How  many  genders  are 
there  ?  Name  and  define  each.  In  how  many  ways  are  the  genders 
distinguished  I     Illustrate. 


LESSON  81. 
NOUNS  AND   PRONOUNS. —PERSON  AND   CASE. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  Number  and  gender,  as 
you  have  already  learned,  are  modifications  affecting  the 
meaning  of  nouns  and  pronouns.  Number  is  almost  always 
indicated  by  the  ending  ;  gender,  sometimes.  There  are 
two  other  modifications  which  refer  not  to  changes  in  the 
meaning  of  nouns  and  pronouns  but  to  their  different  uses 
and  relations.  In  the  English  language,  these  changes 
are  not  often  indicated  by  a  change  of  form. 

"  I  Paul  have  written;"  "Paul,  thou  art  beside  thy* 
self;"  "He  brought  Paul  before  Agrippa."  In  these 
three  sentences  the  word  Paul  has  three  different  uses. 
In  the  first,  it  is  used  as  the  name  of  the  speaker  ;  in  the 
second,  as  the  name  of  one  spoken  to  ;  in  the  third,  as  the 
name  of  one  spoken  of.  You  will  notice  that  the  form 
of  the  noun  is  not  changed.  This  change  in  the  use  of 
nouns  and  pronouns  is  called  Person.  The  word  I  in  the 
first  sentence,  the  word  thou  in  the  second,  and  the  word 
he  in  the  third  have  each  a  different  use.  i",  thou,  and  he 
are  personal  pronouns,  and,  as  you  have  learned,  distin- 
guish person  by  their  form.     J,  denoting  the  speaker,  13 


Nouns  and  Pronouns.  —  Person  and  Case.  181 


in  the  First  Person  ;  thou,  denoting  the  one  spoken  to,  is 
in  the  Second  Person  ;  and  he,  denoting  the  one  spoken 
of,  is  in  the  Third  Person. 

Personal  pronouns  and  verbs  are  the  only  words  that 
distinguish  person  by  their  form. 

"  The  bear  killed  the  man;'"  "  The  man  killed  the  bear;" 
44 The  bear's  grease  was  made  into  hair  oil."  In  the  first 
sentence,  the  bear  is  represented  as  performing  an  action ; 
in  the  second,  as  receiving  an  action  ;  in  the  third,  as 
possessing  something.  Hence  the  word  bear  in  these  sen- 
tences has  three  different  uses.  These  uses  of  nouns  are 
called  Cases.  The  use  of  a  noun  as  subject  is  called  the 
Nominative  Case  ;  its  use  as  object  is  called  the  Objective 
Case  ;  and  its  use  to  denote  possession  is  called  the  Pos- 
sessive Case. 

The  possessive  is  the  only  case  of  nouns  that  is  indicated 
by  a  change  in  form. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  an  attribute  complement  is 
in  the  nominative  case.  A  noun  or  pronoun  following  a 
preposition  as  the  principal  word  of  a  phrase  is  in  the 
objective  case.  Zand  he  are  nominative  forms.  Me  and 
him  are  objective  forms. 

The  following  sentences  are  therefore  incorrect :  It  is 
me  ;  It  is  him  ;  Me  gave  the  pen  to  he. 

Definitions. 

Person  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  de- 
notes the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of, 


182  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


The  First  Person  denotes  the  one  speaking. 

The  Second  Person  denotes  the  one  spoken  to. 

The  Third  Person  denotes  the  one  spoken  of. 

Case  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  denotes 
its  office  in  the  sentence. 

The  Nominative  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its  office  as 
subject  or  as  attribute  complement. 

The  Possessive  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its  office  as 
possessive  modifier. 

The  Objective  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its  office  as 
object  complement,  or  as  principal  word  in  a  prepositional 
phrase. 


LESSON  82. 

NOUNS  AND   PRONOUNS.  — PERSON   AND   CASE. 

Tell  the  person  and  case  of  each  of  the  following  nouns 
and  pronouns  —  remembering  that  a  noun  or  pronoun  used 
as  an  explanatory  modifier  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  word 
which  it  explains,  and  that  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  inde- 
pendently is  in  the  nominative  case  :  — 

We  Americans  do  things  in  a  hurry. 
You  Englishmen  take  more  time  to  think. 

The  Germans  do  their  work  with  the  most  patience  and  delibera- 
tion. 

We  boys  desire  a  holiday. 

Come  on,  my  men  ;  I  will  lead  you. 

I,  your  teacher,  desire  your  success. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns.  — Person  and  Case.       183 


You,  my  pupils,  are  attentive. 

I  called  on  Tom,  the  tinker. 

Friends,  countrymen,  and  lovers,  hear  me  for  my  cause. 

Write  simple  sentences  in  which  each  of  the  following 
nouns  shall  be  used  in  the  three  persons  and  in  the  three 
cases : — 

Andrew  Jackson,  Alexander,  Yankees. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  a  noun  in  the  nominative 
case,  used  as  an  attribute ;  one  in  the  nominative,  used  as 
an  explanatory  modifier ;  one  in  the  nominative,  used  in- 
dependently. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  a  noun  in  the  objective  case, 
used  to  complete  two  predicate  verbs ;  one  used  to  com- 
plete a  participle ;  one  used  to  complete  an  infinitive  ;  one 
used  with  a  preposition  to  make  a  phrase  :  one  used  as  an 
explanatory  modifier. 

If  the  class  is  sufficiently  mature,  the  objective  comple- 
ment may  here  be  treated.  This  explanation  may  be  of 
service  :  — 

In  " It  made  him  sad"  made  does  not  fully  express  the 
action  performed  upon  him — not  "made  him"  but  "made 
sad  (saddened)  him"  Sad  helps  made  to  express  the 
action,  and  also  denotes  a  quality  which,  as  the  result  of 
the  action,  belongs  to  the  person  represented  by  the  object 
him. 

Whatever  completes  the  predicate  and  belongs  to  the 
object  we  call  an  Objective  Complement. 


184  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Nouns,  infinitives,  and  participles  may  be  used  in  the 

same  way,  as:  — 

They  made  Victoria  queen; 
It  made  him  weep; 
It  kept  him  laughing. 

They  I  made  /  queen  i  Victoria        Explanation.  —  The  line  that  sepa- 
rates made  from  queen  slants  toward 
the  object  complement  to  show  that  queen  belongs  to  the  object. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  objective  complement  is  in 
the  objective  case. 

The  teacher  may  here  explain  such  constructions  as  "  I 
proved  it  to  be  him"  in  which  it  is  object  complement 
and  to  be  him  is  objective  complement.  Him,  the  attribute 
complement  of  be,  is  in  the  objective  case,  because  it,  the 
assumed  subject  of  be,  is  objective.  Let  the  pupils  com- 
pare,  "  I  proved  it  to  be  him  "  with  "  I  proved  that  it  was 
h$ni  "  Whom  did  you  suppose  it  to  be  ?  "  with  "  Who  did 
you  suppose  it  was  ?  "  etc. 

These  uses  of  nouns  and  pronouns  may  here  be  intro- 
duced, if  the  class  be  sufficiently  mature :  — 

1.   He  gave  John  a  book.  2.   He  bought  me  a  book. 

John  and  me,  as  here  used,  are  called  Indirect  Objects. 
The  indirect  object  names  the  one  to  or  for  whom  some- 
thing is  done.  We  treat  these  words  as  modifiers  without 
the  preposition.  If  we  change  the  order,  the  preposition 
paust  be  supplied;  as,  "He  gave  a  book  to  John;"  "He 
bought  a  book  for  me" 


Nouns  and  Pronouns. —  Declension.  185 


Nouns  denoting  measure,  quantity,  weight,  time,  value, 
distance,  or  direction  may  be  used  adverbially,  being  equiv- 
alent to  phrase  modifiers  without  the  preposition,  as  :  — 

1.  We  walked  four  miles  an  hour. 

2.  It  weighs  one  pound. 

3.  It  is  worth  a  dollar. 

4.  The  wall  is  ten  feet  six  iyiches  high. 

5.  I  went  home  that  way. 

The  following  diagram  will  illustrate  both  the  indirect 
object  and  the  noun  of  measure  :  — 

They  offered  Cossar  the  crown  three  times. 

_  Explanation.  —  Ccesar   (the    indirect 

Thty    .    offered     ,  crown  ,.      "  _  ,,        J.x  . 

object)    and    times   (denoting    measure) 

stand  in  the  diagram  on  lines  represent- 
ing the  principal  words  of  prepositional 
phrases. 


LESSON  83. 

NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.— DECLENSION. 

Definition.  —  Declension  is  the  arrangement  of  the  cases  of 
nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  two  numbers. 

Declension  of  Nouns. 

LADY.  CHILD. 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.    lady,  ladies,  Nom.    child,  children, 

Pos.     lady's,  ladies',  Pos.      child's,  children's, 

Obj.      lady;  ladies.  Obj.      child;  children. 


186  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Declension 

OF 

Pronouns. 

Personal  Pronouns. 

first 

PERSON. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.    I, 

we, 

Pos.      my  or  mine, 

our  or  ours, 

Obj.      me ; 

us. 

second  person  —  common  form. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.   you,  you, 

Pos.      your  or  yours,  your  or  yours, 

Obj.      you ;  you. 

second  person  —  old  form. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.    thou,  ye  or  you, 

Pos.      thy  or  thine,  your  or  yours, 

06;.      thee ;  you. 

third  person  —  masculine. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.   he,  they, 

Pos.     his,  their  or  theirs, 

Obj.      him ;  them. 

third  person  —  feminine. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.   she,  they, 

Pos.     her  or  hers,  their  or  theirs, 

Obj.     her ;  them. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns.  — Declension.  187 


third  person  —  neuter. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.   it,  they, 

Pos.      its,  their  or  theirs, 

Obj.      it ;  them. 

Mine,  ours,  yours,  thine,  hers,  and  theirs  are  used  when  the  name 
df  the  thing  possessed  is  omitted;  as,  "This  rose  is  yours11  =  "This 
rose  is  your  rose.11 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns. 

By  joining  the  word  self  to  the  possessive  forms  my, 
thy,  your  and  to  the  objective  forms  him,  her,  it,  the 
Compound  Personal  Pronouns  are  formed.  They  have 
no  possessive  case,  and  are  alike  in  the  nominative  and 
the  objective. 

Their  plurals  are  ourselves,  yourselves,  and  themselves. 
Form  the  compound  personal  pronouns,  and  write  their 
declension. 

Relative  and  Interrogative  Pronouns. 
Sing,  and  Plu.  Sing,  and  Plu. 

Nom.   who,  Nom.   which, 

Pos.     whose,  Pos.     whose, 

Obj.     whom.  Obj.     which. 

Of  which  is  often  used  instead  of  the  possessive  form  of 
the  latter  pronoun.  In  actual  use,  whose,  interrogative,  is 
the  possessive  of  who  only. 


188  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


Sing,  and  Plu.  Sing,  and  Plu. 

Nom.   that,  Norn,   what, 

Pos.      ,  Pos.      , 

Obj.      that.  Obj.      what. 

Ever  and  soever  are  added  to  who,  which,  and  what  to 

form  the  Compound  Relative  Pronouns.  They  are  used 
when  the  antecedent  is  omitted.  For  declension  see 
above. 


LESSON  84. 

POSSESSIVE  FORMS. 

Kule.  —  The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed  in  the 
singular  by  adding  to  the  nominative  the  apostrophe  and 
the  letter  s  ('s);  in  the  plural,  by  adding  the  apostrophe  (') 
only.  If  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s,  the  apostrophe  and  the 
s  are  both  added. 

Write  the  possessive  singular  and  the  possessive  plural 
of  the  following  nouns,  and  place  an  appropriate  noun 
after  each:  — 

Robin,  friend,  fly,  hero,  woman,  bee,  mouse,  cuckoo,  fox,  ox,  man, 
thief,  fairy,  mosquito,  wolf,  shepherd,  farmer,  child,  neighbor,  cow. 

Possession  may  be  expressed  also  by  the  preposition  of 
and  the  objective ;  as,  the  mosquito's  bill  =  the  bill  of  the 
mosquito. 

The  possessive  sign  ('s)  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  names 
of  persons  and  animals. 


Possessive  Forms.  189 


We  do  not  say  the  chair's  legs,  but  the  legs  of  the  chair. 
Regard  must  be  had  also  to  the  sound. 

Improve  the  following  expressions,  and  expand  each 
into  a  simple  sentence:  — 

The  sky's  color ;  the  cloud's  brilliancy ;  the  rose's  leaves ;  my  uncle's 
partner's  house ;  George's  father's  friend's  farm ;  the  mane  of  the  horse 
of  my  brother ;  my  brother's  horse's  mane. 

When  there  are  several  possessive  nouns,  all  belonging 
to  one  word,  the  possessive  sign  is  added  to  the  last 
only.  If  they  modify  different  words,  the  sign  is  added 
to  each. 

Correct  the  following  expressions,  and  expand  each  into 
a  simple  sentence :  — 

Model.  —  Webster  and  Worcester's  dictionary  may  be  bought  at 
Ticknor's  and  Field's  bookstore. 

The  possessive  sign  should  be  added  to  Webster,  for  the  word 
dictionary  is  understood  immediately  after.  Webster  and  Worcester 
did  not  together  possess  the  same  dictionary.  The  sign  should  not  be 
added  to  TicJcnor,  for  the  two  men,  Ticknor  and  Field,  owned  the 
same  store. 

Adam's  and  Eve's  garden ;  Jacob's  and  Esau's  father  ;  Shakespeare 
and  Milton's  works  ;  Maud,  Kate,  and  Clara's  gloves ;  Maud's,  Kate's,, 
and  Clara's  teacher  was . 

When  one  possessive  noun  is  explanatory  of  another*  the 
possessive  sign  is  added  to  the  last  only. 


190  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

I  called  at  Tom's  the  tinker's.    They  listened  to  Peter's  the  Hermit's 
eloquence.     This  was  the  Apostle's  Paul's  advice. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

Our's,  your's,  hi's,  their's,  her's,  it's,  hisn,  yourn,  hern. 


LESSON  85. 
FORMS   OF   THE   PRONOUN. 

Remember  that  2",  we,  thou,  ye,  he,  she,  they,  and  who  are 
nominative  forms,  and  must  not  be  used  in  the  objective 
case. 

Remember  that  me,  us,  thee,  him,  her,  them,  and  whom 
are  objective  forms,  and  must  not  be  used  in  the  nominative 
case. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  The  eight  nominative  forms  and  the  seven  objec- 
tive forms  given  above  are  the  only  distinctive  nominative  and  objective 
forms  in  the  English  language.    Let  the  pupils  become  familiar  with  them. 

.  Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

Him  and  me  are  good  friends. 

The  two  persons  were  her  and  me. 

Us  girls  had  a  jolly  time. 

It  is  them,  surely. 

Who  will  catch  this  ?     Me. 

Them  that  despise  me  shall  be  lightly  esteemed. 

Who  is  there  I     Me. 


Forms  of  the  Pronoun.  191 


It  was  not  us,  it  was  him. 
Who  did  you  see  ? 
Who  did  you  ask  for  ? 

Remember  that  pronouns  must  agree  with  their  antece- 
dents in  number,  gender,  and  person. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  —  ' 

Every  hoy  must  read  their  own  sentences. 

I  gave  the  horse  oats,  hut  he  would  not  eat  it. 

Every  one  must  read  it  for  themselves. 

I  took  up  the  little  boy,  and  set  it  on  my  knee. 

Remember  that  the  relative  who  represents  persons  | 
which,  animals  and  things ;  that,  persons,  animals,  and 
things ;  and  what,  things. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

I  have  a  dog  who  runs  to  meet  me. 

The  boy  which  I  met  was  quite  lame. 

Those  which  live  in  glass  houses  must  not  throw  stones. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  For  "  Schemes,"  see  p.  268. 

How  many  modifications  have  nouns  and  pronouns?  Name  and 
define  each.  How  many  persons  are  there  I  Define  each.  How  many 
cases  are  there  ?  Define  each.  How  do  you  determine  the  case  of  aD 
explanatory  noun  or  pronoun?  What  is  declension?  How  are  the 
forms  mine,  yours,  etc.,  now  used  ?  What  is  the  rule  for  forming  the 
possessive  case?  What  words  are  used  only  in  the  nominative  case? 
What  words  are  used  only  in  the  objective  case?1  How  do  you 
determine  the  number,  gender,  and  person  of  pronouns? 

1  Her  is  used  in  the  possessive  case  also. 


192 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON  86. 

NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS  — PARSING. 

To  the  Teacher.  — For  general  "  Scheme  "  for  parsing,  see  p.  271. 

Select  and  parse  all  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  Lesson  53. 

Model  for  "Written  Parsing.  —  Elizabeth's  favorite,  Raleigh, 
was  beheaded  by  James  I. 


Classification. 

Modifications. 

Syntax. 

Nouns. 

Kind. 

Person. 

Number. 

Gender. 

Case. 

Elizabeth's 

Prop. 

3rd. 

Sing. 

Fern. 

Pos. 

Pos.  Mod.  of  favorite. 

favorite 

Com. 

u 

u 

Mas. 

Nom. 

Sub.  of  was  beheaded. 

Raleigh 

Prop. 

u 

ft 

a 

u 

Exp.  Mod.  of  favorite. 

James  I. 

" 

u 

u 

u 

Obj. 

Prin.  word  after  by. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Select  other  exercises,  and  continue  this  work  as 
long  as  it  may  be  profitable.     See  Lessons  56,  57,  61,  64,  and  65. 


LESSON  87. 
COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 
Adjectives  have  one  modification  ;  viz.,  Comparison. 

Definitions. 

Comparison  is  a  modification  of  the  adjective  to  express  the 
relative  degree  of  the  quality  in  the  things  compared. 

The  Positive  Degree  expresses  the  simple  quality. 

The  Comparative  Degree  expresses  a  greater  or  a  less  degree 
of  the  quality. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives. 


193 


The  Superlative  Degree  expresses  the  greatest  or  the  least 
degree  of  the  quality. 

Eule.  —  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  er  to 
the  positive  to  form  the  comparative,  and  est  to  the  positive 
to  form  the  superlative. 

Adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  generally  compared  regu- 
larly ;  adjectives  of  two  or  more  syllables  are  often  com- 
pared by  prefixing  more  and  most.  To  express  diminution, 
we  prefix  less  and  least. 

When  there  are  two  correct  forms,  choose  the  one  that 
can  be  more  easily  pronounced. 

Compare  the  following  adjectives.  For  the  spelling 
consult  your  dictionaries  :  — 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Lovely,  lovelier,  loveliest;  or 

lovely,  more  lovely,  most  lovely. 

Tame,  warm,  beautiful,  brilliant,  amiable,  high,  mad,  greedy, 
pretty,  hot. 

Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly.  Learn  the 
following  forms  :  — 

Comparative. 
better, 


Superlative. 
best. 


worse, 

less, 
more, 


worst. 

least, 
most. 


194  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON  88. 
COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS. 

Remember  that,  when  two  things  or  groups  of  things 
are  compared,  the  comparative  degree  is  commonly  used  ; 
when  more  than  two,  the  superlative  is  employed. 

Caution. — Adjectives  should  not  be  doubly  compared. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

Of  all  the  boys,  George  is  the  more  industrious. 

Peter  was  older  than  the  twelve  apostles. 

Which  is  the  longer  of  the  rivers  of  America  ? 

This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all. 

He  chose  a  more  humbler  part. 

My  hat  is  more  handsomer  than  yours. 

The  younger  of  those  three  boys  is  the  smarter. 

"Which  is  the  more  northerly,  Maine,  Oregon,  or  Minnesota  ? 

Caution.  —  Do  not  use  adjectives  and  adverbs  extrava- 
gantly. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

The  weather  is  horrid. 

That  dress  is  perfectly  awful. 

Your  coat  sits  frightfully. 

We  had  an  awfully  good  time. 

This  is  a  tremendously  hard  lesson. 

Harry  is  a  mighty  nice  boy. 

Remember  that  adjectives  whose  meaning  does  not 
admit  of  different  degrees  cannot  be  compared ;  as,  every, 
infinite. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs.  195 


Use  in  the  three  different  degrees  such  of  the  following 
adjectives  as  admit  of  comparison  :  — 

'    All,  serene,  excellent,  immortal,  first,  two,  total,  universal,  three- 
legged,  bright. 

Adverbs  are  compared  in  the  same  manner  as  adjec- 
tives.    The  following  are  compared  regularly.     Compare 

Fast,  often,  soon,  late,  early. 

In  the  preceding  and  in  the  following  list,  find  words 
that  may  be  used  as  adjectives. 

The  following  are  compared  irregularly  ;  learn  them  :  — - 

Positive.  Comparative,  Superlative. 

adly,  1 

B,        J 

Well,  better,  best. 

Little,  less,  least. 

Much,  more,  most. 

Far,  farther,  farthest. 

Adverbs  ending  in  ly  are  generally  compared  by  pre- 
fixing more  and  most.     Compare  the  following  :  — 
Firmly,  gracefully,  actively,  easily. 

To  the  Teacher.  — Let  the  pupils  select  and  parse  all  the  adjectives 
and  adverbs  in  Lesson  27.  Select  other  exercises,  and  continue  the  work 
as  long  as  it  is  profitable.    See  "  Schemes  "  for  review,  p.  270. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

How  is  a  noun  parsed?  What  modifications  have  adjectives? 
What  is  comparison  ?     How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there  ? 


a   y'  I  worse,  worst. 

Ill, 


196  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


Define  each.  How  are  adjectives  regularly  compared  1  Distinguish 
the  uses  of  the  comparative  and  the  superlative  degree.  Give  the  direc- 
tions for  using  adjectives  and  adverbs  (Lesson  88).  Illustrate. 
What  adjectives  cannot  be  compared  ?     How  are  adverbs  compared  ? 


LESSON  89. 

MODIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 

Voice. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction. — "I picked  the  rose."  The 
same  thing  may  be  said  in  another  way.  "  The  rose  was 
picked  by  me."  The  first  verb,  picked,  shows  that  the  sub- 
ject represents  the  actor,  and  the  second  form  of  the  verb, 
'Was  picked,  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  thing  acted 
upon.  This  change  in  the  form  and  use  of  the  verb  is 
called  Voice.  The  first  form  is  called  the  Active  Voice  ; 
;and  the  second,  the  Passive  Voice. 

The  passive  form  is  very  convenient  when  *we  wish  to 
.assert  an  action  without  naming  any  actor.  "Money  is 
<coined"  is  better  than  "Somebody  coins  money." 

Definitions. 

Voice  is  that  modification  of  the  transitive  verb  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  names  the  actor  or  the  thing  acted  upon. 

The  Active  Voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  actor. 

The  Passive  Voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  thing 
acted  upon. 


Mode,  Tense,  Number,  and  Person.  197 


In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  change  the  voice  of 
the  verb  without  changing  the  meaning  of  the  sentence, 
and  note  the  other  changes  that  occur  in  the  sentence  :  — 

The  industrious  bees  gather  honey  from  the  flowers. 
The  storm  drove  the  vessel  against  the  rock. 
Our  words  should  be  carefully  chosen. 
Death  separates  the  dearest  friends. 

His  vices  have  weakened  his  mind  and  destroyed  his  health. 
True  valor  protects  the  feeble  and  humbles  the  oppressor. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  commanded  the  English  armies  in 
the  Peninsula,  never  lost  a  battle. 
Moses  led  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt. 
Dr.  Livingstone  explored  a  large  part  of  Africa. 
The  English  were  conquered  by  the  Normans. 

Name  all  the  transitive  verbs  in  Lessons  20  and  22,  and 
give  their  voice.  

LESSON  90. 
MODE,  TENSE,  NUMBER,  AND  PERSON. 

Hints  for  Oral  Instruction.  —  When  I  say,  "James 
walks"  I  assert  the  walking  as  a  fact.  When  I  say, 
" James  may  walk"  I  do  not  assert  the  action  as  a  fact, 
but  as  a  possible  action.  When  I  say,  "If  James  walk 
out,  he  will  improve,"  I  assert  the  action,  not  as  an  actual 
fact,  but  as  a  condition  of  James's  improving  —  a  condi- 
tion that  may  or  may  not  become  a  fact.  When  I  say  to 
James,  "  Walk  out,"  I  do  not  assert  that  James  actually 
does  the  act,  I  assert  the  action  as  a  command. 


198  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


The  action  expressed  by  the  verb  walk  is  here  asserted 
in  four  different  ways,  or  Modes.1  The  first  way  is  called 
the  Indicative  Mode  ;  the  second,  the  Potential  Mode  ;  the 
third,  the  Subjunctive  Mode ;  the  fourth,  the  Imperative 
Mode. 

Let  the  teacher  give  other  examples  and  require  the 
pupils  to  repeat  this  instruction. 

For  the  two  forms  of  the  verb  called  the  Infinitive  and 
the  Participle,  see  u  Hints,"  Lessons  48  and  49. 

"I  walk;"  "I  walked;"  "I  shall  walk"  In  each  of 
these  sentences,  the  manner  of  asserting  the  action  is  the 
same.  "  I  walk "  expresses  the  action  as  present ;  "  I 
walked "  expresses  the  action  as  past ;  "  I  shall  walk " 
expresses  the  action  as  future.  As  Tense  means  time,  the 
first  form  is  called  the  Present  Tense  ;  the  second,  the 
Past  Tense  ;  and  the  third,  the  Future  Tense. 

We  have  three  other  forms  of  the  verb,  expressing  the 
action  as  completed  in  the  present,  the  past,  or  the  future. 

"I  have  walked  out  to-day;  "  "I  had  walked  out  when 
he  called  ; "  "  I  shall  have  walked  out  by  to-morrow."  The 
form,  have  walked,  expressing  the  action  as  completed  in 
the  present,  is  called  the  Present  Perfect  Tense.  The 
form,  had  ivalked,  expressing  the  action  as  completed  in 
the  past,  is  called  the  Past  Perfect  Tense.       The   form, 

1  Many  grammarians  reject  the  potential  mode,  insisting  that,  when  we 
assert  the  power,  liberty,  or  possibility  of  acting  or  being,  we  assert  it 
(1)  as  a  fact,  and  the  verb  is  in  the  indicative ;  or  we  assert  it  (2)  as  a 
supposition  or  conception  merely,  and  the  verb  is  in  the  subjunctive. 


Mode,  Tense,  Number,  and   Person.  199 


shall  have  walked,  expressing  an  action  to  be  completed  in 
the  future,  is  called  the  Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Let  the  teacher  give  other  verbs,  and  require  the  pupils 
to  name  and  explain  the  different  tenses. 

"I  walk;"  "Thou  walkest ;"  "He  walks;"  "They 
walk"  In  the  second  sentence,  the  verb  walk  was  changed 
by  adding  est ;  and  in  the  third,  it  was  changed  by  add- 
ing s.  These  changes  are  for  the  sake  of  agreement  with 
the  person  of  the  subject.  The  verb  ending  in  est  agrees 
with  the  subject  thou  in  the  second  person,  and  the  verb 
ending  in  s  agrees  with  he  in  the  third  person.  In  the 
fourth  sentence,  the  subject  is  in  the  third  person  ;  but  it 
is  plural,  and  so  the  verb  drops  the  s  to  agree  with  the 
plural  they. 

Verbs  are  said  to  agree  in  Person  and  Number  with 
their  subjects.  The  person  and  number  forms  may  be 
found  in  Lessons  93,  94. 

Definitions. 

Mode  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  denotes  the 
manner  of  asserting  the  action  or  being. 

The  Indicative  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  fact. 

The  Potential  Mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  possibility,  or 
necessity  of  acting  or  being. 

The  Subjunctive  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  mere 
condition,  supposition,  or  wish. 


200  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


The  Imperative  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  com- 
mand or  an  entreaty. 

The  Infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  which  names  the  action 
or  being  in  a  general  way,  without  asserting  it  of  anything. 

The  Participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  an  adjective  or  of  a  noun/  and  expressing  the  action  or 
being  as  assumed. 

The  Present  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  continuing 
at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

The  Past  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  past  or  com- 
pleted at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

The  Past  Perfect  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  a  time  previous  to  that  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

Tense  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  expresses  the 
time  of  the  action  or  being. 

The  Present  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  present. 

The  Past  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  past. 

The  Future  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  yet  to  come. 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  the  present  time. 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  to  be 
completed  at  some  future  time. 

Number  and  Person  of  a  verb  are  those  modifications  that 
show  its  agreement  with  the  number  and  person  of  its  subject. 

1See  Lesson  98,  foot-note. 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb.  201 


LESSON    91. 
CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB. 
Definitions. 
Conjugation  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  all  the  forms  of 
the  verb. 

Synopsis  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  the  forms  of  one 
number  and  person  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 

Auxiliary  Verbs  are  those  that  help  in  the  conjugation  of 
other  verbs. 

The  auxiliaries  are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  and 
must. 

The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present  indicative  or  the 
present  infinitive,  the  past  indicative,  and  the  past  participle. 

These  are  called  principal  parts,  because  all  the  other 
forms  of  the  verb  are  derived  from  them. 

We  give,  below,  the  principal  parts  of  some  of  the  most 
important  irregular  verbs.1     Learn  them. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Be  or  am, 

was, 

been. 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Break, 

broke, 

broken. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Do, 

did, 

done. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

1  Most  of  those  in  the  list  are  irregular  strong  verbs.     See  Lesson  74, 
foot-note. 


202 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


°resent. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drunk. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

Eat, 

ate, 

eaten. 

Fall, 

fell, 

fallen. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flown. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Go, 

went, 

gone. 

Get, 

got, 

got  or  gotten. 

Give, 

gave, 

given. 

Grow, 

'  grew, 

grown. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

Lie  (to  rest), 

lay, 

lain. 

Eide, 

rode, 

ridden. 

King, 

rang  or  rung, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Run, 

ran, 

run. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Sing, 

sang  or  sung, 

sung. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

Swim, 

swam  or  swum, 

swum. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  SEE. 


203 


The  following  irregular  verbs  are  called  Defective  be- 
cause some  of  their  parts  are  wanting :  — 

Present. 


Present. 
Can, 
May, 
Shall, 


Past. 
could, 
might, 
should. 


Will, 
Must, 
Ought, 


Past. 
would. 


LESSON  92. 
CONJUGATION  OF  THE   VERB    SEE  IN 
Principal  Parts. 


THE   SIMPLE   FORM. 


"esen 

t. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

See 

saw, 

seen. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Singular. 

Present  Tense. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  see, 

1. 

We  see, 

2.- 

r  You  see,  or 
I  Thou  seest, 

2. 

You  see, 

3. 

He  sees ; 

3. 

They  see. 

1. 

I  saw, 

Past  Tense. 

1. 

We  saw, 

2.  • 

r  You  saw,  or 
{  Thou  sawest, 

•    - 

2. 

You  saw, 

3. 

He  saw ; 

3. 

They  saw. 

1. 

I  shall  see, 

Future  Tense. 

1. 

We  shall  see, 

2. - 

r  You  will  see, 
Thou  wilt  see 

or 

i 

2. 

You  will  see, 

3. 

He  will  see ; 

3. 

They  will  see. 

204  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  seen,  1.    We  have  seen, 

_   f  You  have  seen,  or  _     ^r 

2.  i  m.       .  2.    You  have  seen, 
[  Thou  hast  seen, 

3.  He  has  seen ;  3.    They  have  seea 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
1.     I  had  seen,  1.    We  had  seen, 

_    f  You  had  seen,  or  n    __     ,    , 

2  A  _.       .    _       '  2.    You  had  seen, 

I  Thou  hadst  seen, 

3.     He  had  seen ;  3.    They  had  seen. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  have  seen,  1.    We  shall  have  seen, 

ft   f  You  will  have  seen,  or  _     _r        ...  . 

2.  \  _.  Ml  .  2.    You  will  have  seen, 

Thou  wilt  have  seen, 

3.  He  will  have  seen ;  3.    They  will  have  seei 

Potential  Mode.1 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.     I  may  see,  1.    We  may  see, 

f  You  may  see,  or 

'  \  Thou  mayst  see,  '  ' 

3.     He  may  see ;  3.    They  may  see. 

Past  Tense. 
1.     I  might  see,  1.   We  might  see, 

f  You  might  see,  or  . 

2- 1  rru         •  I.*  *  2-    You  might  see, 

[  Thou  mightst  see, 

3.     He  might  see ;  3.    They  might  see. 

1  See  Lesson  90,  foot-note. 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb  SEE.  205 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.     I  may  have  seen,  1.  We  may  have  seen, 

You  may  have  seen,  or  _  .-  . 

_.  2.  You  may  have  seen, 

Thou  mayst  have  seen, 

3.     He  may  have  seen ;  3.  They  may  have  seen. 


2. 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 
1.     I  might  have  seen,  1.    We  might  have  seen, 

'  You  might  have  seen,  or 


2.    You  might  have  seen, 
Thou  mightst  have  seen, 


2. 

3.     He  might  have  seen  j  3.    They  might  have  seen. 


Subjunctive  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.    If  I  see,  1.    If  we  see, 

f  If  you  see,  or 

'  \  If  thou  see, 

3.     If  he  see ;  3.    If  they  see. 


2.    If  you  see, 


Imperative  Mode. 
Present  Tense. 
2.   See  (you  or  thou) ;  2.    See  (you). 


Infinitives. 

Present  Tense. 

To  see. 

• 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

To  have  seen. 

Participles. 

Present. 

IPast. 

Past  Perfect. 

Seeing. 

Seen. 

Having  seen. 

206  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


To  the  Teacher.  —  Let  the  pupils  prefix  do  and  did  to  the  simple 
present  see,  and  thus  make  the  Emphatic  form  of  the  present  and  the 
past  tense. 

Let  can  and  must  be  used  in  place  of  may ;  and  could,  would,  and 
should,  in  place  of  might. 

Require  the  pupils  to  tell  how  each  tense  is  formed,  and  t»  note  all 
changes  for  agreement  in  number  and  person. 

A  majority  of  modern  writers  use  the  indicative  forms  instead  of  the 
subjunctive  in  all  of  the  tenses,  unless  it  may  be  the  present.  The  sub- 
junctive forms  of  the  verb  be  are  retained  in  the  present  and  the  past 
tense. 

Let  the  pupils  understand  that  the  mode  and  tense  forms  do  not 
always  correspond  with  the  actual  meaning.  "The  ship  sails  next 
week."  "I  may  go  to-morrow."  The  verbs  sails  and  may  go  are 
present  in  form  but  future  in  meaning.  "If  it  rains  by  noon,  he 
may  not  come."  The  verb  rains  is  indicative  in  form  but  subjunctive 
in  meaning. 

The  plural  forms,  You  saw,  You  were,  etc.,  are  used  in  the  singular 
also. 


LESSON  93. 
CONJUGATION   OF   THE   VERB.— SIMPLE  EORM. 

Fill  out  the  following  forms,  using  the  principal  parts 

of  the  verb  walk,     Pres.,  walk ;  Past,  walked ;  Past  Par., 

walked.         • 

Indicative  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  Pres.     ,  1.      We  Pres.     , 

_     fYou         Pres.     ,  • 

2.  \  _.         *  2.      YOU         Pres.     , 

[  Thou      Pres.      est,  

3.  He  Pres.      8 ;  3.      They       Pres. 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb.  — Simple  Form. 


Singular. 

1.     I  Part     , 

JYoU         Past      , 

'  [Thou      Past       St, 

3.      He  Past       : 


Past  Tense. 


Plural. 
1.     We         Past 


2.  You 

3.  They 


Past 


Past 


207 


1.     I  shall 


3.     He  will 


Pres. 


J  YOU  tvitt  Pres.     , 

1  Thou  £w7-£       Pres. 


Pres. 


Future  Tense. 

1.  We  shall 

2.  You  will 


Pres. 


3.      They  Will       Pres. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 
1.      I  have  Past  Par.,  1.      We  have      Past  Par.% 

2.  YOU  have    Past  Par.^ 

3.  They  have  Past  Par.. 


{  YOU  have      Past  Par., 

'  \  Thou  ha-St  Past  Par., 

3.      He  ha-8         Past  Par., 


1.    I  had 

_     f  YOU  had  Past  Par., 

J'  \  Thou  liadst  Past  Par ., 

3.    He  ftad         *&«*  Par. ; 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Past  Par.,  1.      We  had      Past  Par.% 

2.  YOU  had     Past  Par., 

3.  They  had  Past  Par.. 


1.    I  shall  have 

{  YOU  Will  have  Past  Par., 
**  \  Th0U  Wil-t  have  Past  Par., 
3.      He  Will  have         Past  Par.  • 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 
Past  Par.,  \.      We  shall  have    Past  Par.. 

2.      YOU  Will  have    Past  Par., 

.  3.     They  will  have  Past  Par.. 


208  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


1. 

Singular. 
I  may 
'  You  may 
Thou  may-st 
He  may 

I  m^/i^ 
You  mlgr/tl 
Thou  might-st 
He  might 

Pres. 

Potential  Mod 
Present  Tense 

i. 

2, 

> 

;              3. 

Past  Tense. 

Plural. 
We  may 

You  may 

They  may 

We  mw/fa 

You  might 
They  m&pAt 

Pr«s.     , 

2.< 
3. 

1. 

Pres. 

Pres. 
Pres. 

Pres. 

Pres.     . 

3. 

Pres. 

Pres. 

Pres. 

2. 

;             3. 

Pres.     , 
Pres. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  may  /lave  Pa**  Par.,  1.     We  may  have     Past  Par., 

_    f  You  may  have        Past  Par 

2.  \  mi                 .  _                                2.     You  may  have   Past  Par.. 
{ Thou  may-st  have  PaMPar^  9  ' 

3.  He  may  have        .  Past  Par.  •  3.     They  may  7ia^e  P«a  Par., 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
1.     I  might  have  Past  Par.,         1.    We  might  have    Past  Par-,, 

'  You  might  have       Past  Par., 


2. 

3.     He  might  have         Past  Par.  •        3.    They  mfa/^  /ia^e  Pas<  Par.. 


2.      YOU  mia/i^  /iCWe    Past  Par.. 
Thou  might-St  have  Past  Par.,  v  ' 


Subjunctive  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.      If  I  Pres.     ,  1.      If  we  Pres. 


2. 

f if  you 

1  If  thou 
If  he 

Pres.     , 
Pres.     , 

3. 

Pres. 

2.  If  you         Pres. 

3.  If  they       Pres. 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb  BE.  209 


Imperative  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

2.     Pres.       (you  OT  thou)  ;  2.     Pres.       (you). 

Infinitives. 
Present  Tense. 

To       Pres.     . 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
To  have  Past  Par.. 

Participles. 
Present.  Past.  Past  Perfect. 

Pres.    iftg.  Past  Par.  Having  Past  Par. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Let  the  pupils  fill  out  these  forms  with  other  verbs. 
In  the  indicative,  present,  third,  singular,  es  is  sometimes  added  instead 
of  s  ;  and  in  the  second  person,  old  style,  st  is  sometimes  added  instead 
of  est. 


LESSON  94. 
CONJUGATION   OF   THE   VERB   BE. 

In  studying  this  Lesson,  pay  no  attention  to  the  line  at 
the  right  of  each  verb. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.     I  am ,  1.    We  are , 


f  You  are ,  or 

Thou  art  ■ 


2.  j  mi  2.   You  are 


3.     He  is ;  3.    They  are 


.210  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Past  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.     I  was ,  1.    We  were  — 

You  were -,  or 


2. 


Thou  wast  ■ 


2.   You  were 


3.     He  was ;  3.    They  were 

Future  Tense. 

1.     I  shall  be ,  1.  We  shall  be  — 

[  You  will  be ,  or 

M  Thou  wilt  be ,  2'  Y™wlllbe- 

3.     He  will  be ;  3.  They  will  be  - 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.     I  have  been ,  1.    We  have  been 

'  You  have  been ,  or 


2. 


Thou  hast  been 


2.    You  have  been  - 


3.     He  has  been ;  3.    They  have  been  ■ 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.     I  had  been ,  1.    We  had  been 

You  had  been '-,  or 


2. 


Thou  hadst  been 


2.    You  had  been 


-3.     He  had  been ;  3.    They  had  been 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

1.     I  shall  have  been ,  1.    We  shall  have  been - 

'  You  will  have  been ,  or 


2 


2.   You  will  have  been 
Thou  wilt  have  been , 


3.     He  will  have  been ;         3.    They  will  have  been 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb  BE.  211 


Potential  Mode. 


Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.     I  may  be ,  1.   We  may  be  - 

You  maj  be ,  or 


2. 


Thou  mayst  be  • 


2.    You  maybe 


3.     He  may  be ;  3.    They  may  be . 

Past  Tense. 

1.  I  might  be ,  1.    We  might  be , 

_    f  You  might  be ,  or  ^T         .  , '   v 

2.  \  ^  .  ,  2.    You  might  be , 

Thou  mightst  be , 

3.  He  might  be ;  3.    They  might  be ■ 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  may  have  been ,  1.    We  may  have  been 

«   f  You  may  have  been ,  or     n    ^T  .        . 

2.  \  „,i  ,i  2.    You  may  have  been  — 

Thou  mayst  have  been , 

3.  He  may  have  been ;        3.    They  may  have  been  — 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might  have  been ,  1.    We  might  have  been  — 

«    f  You  might  have  been ,  or    ■     ^T         .  .  J  .        . 

2.  \  mi         .  .       .        .  2.    You  might  have  been  — 
[  Thou  mightst  have  been , 

3.  He  might  have  been ;      3.    They  might  have  been  ■ 

Subjunctive  Mode. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.                                              Plural. 
1.     if  I  be ,  1.    If  we  be , 

-,   f  If  you  be ,  or  n    T«        , 

2-     „L._  v.  2-    W you  be , 


thou  be 


3.     If  he  be ;  3.    If  they  be 


212 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Singular. 

1.     If  I  were 

'  you  were  — 
'  thou  wert  - 

3.     If  he  were  — 


[  If  1 


Past  Tense. 

Plural. 
1.    If  we  were  - 


-,  or 


2.  If  you  were  - 

3.  If  they  were 


Imperative  Mode. 
Present  Tense. 
2.    Be  (you  or  thou) ;  2.    Be  (you) 

Infinitives. 

Present  Tense. 

To  be . 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
To  have  been . 


Participles. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Perfect. 

leing . 

Been. 

Having  been . 

To  the  Teacher.  —  After  the  pupils  have  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  verb  be  as  a  principal  verb,  teach  them  to  use  it  as  an  auxiliary 
in  making  the  Progressive  Form  and  the  Passive  Form. 

The  progressive  form  may  be  made  by  filling  all  the  blanks  with  the 
present  participle  of  some  verb. 

The  passive  form  may  be  made  by  filling  all  the  blanks  with  the  past 
participle  of  a  transitive  verb. 

Notice  that  there  is  no  blank  after  the  past  participle. 

In  the  progressive  form,  this  participle  is  wanting  ;  and  in  the  passive 
form,  it  is  the  same  as  in  the  simple* 


Agreement  of  the  Verb.  213 


LESSON  95. 
AGREEMENT  OF   THE   VERB. 

Remember  that  the  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  and  person. 

Give  the  person  and  number  of  each  of  the  following 
verbs,  and  write  sentences  in  which  each  form  shall  be 
used  correctly  :  — 

Common  forms.  —  Does,  has  =  ha(ve)s,  is,  am,  are,  was,  were. 
Old  forms.  —  Seest,  sawest,  hast  =  ha(ve)st,  wilt,  mayst,  mightst, 
art,  wast. 

When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and, 
it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural.  A  similar  rule 
applies  to  the  agreement  of  the  pronoun. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

Poverty  and  obscurity  oppresses  him  who  thinks  that  it  is  op- 
pressive. 

'Wrong ;  the  verb  oppresses  should  be  oppress  to  agree 
with  its  two  subjects  connected  by  and.  The  pronoun  it 
should  be  they  to  agree  with  its  two  antecedents,  and  the 
verb  is  should  be  are  to  agree  with  they. 

Industry,  energy,  and  good  sense  is  essential  to  success. 

Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 

The  tall  sunflower  and  the  little  violet  is  turning  its  face  to  the  sun. 

The  mule  and  the  horse  was  harnessed  together. 

Every  green  leaf  and  every  blade  of  grass  seem  grateful. 


214  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Wrong ;  the  verb  seem  should  be  singular  ;  for,  when 
several  singular  subjects  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or 
no,  they  are  taken  separately. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

Each  day  and  each  hour  bring  their  portion  of  duty. 
Every  book  and  every  paper  were  found  in  their  place. 

When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  singular  subjects  con- 
nected by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  sin- 
gular. A  similar  rule  applies  to  the  agreement  of  the 
pronoun. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

One  or  the  other  have  made  a  mistake  in  their  statement. 
Neither  the  aster  nor  the  dahlia  are  cultivated  for  their  fragrance. 
Either  the  president  or  his  secretary  were  responsible. 
Neither  Ann,  Jane,  nor  Sarah  are  at  home. 

To  foretell,  or  to  express  future  time  simply,  the  auxil- 
iary shall  is  used  in  the  first  person,  and  will  in  the  second 
and  third  ;  but,  when  a  speaker  determines  or  promises, 
he  uses  will  in  the  first  person  and  shall  in  the  second  and 
third. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

I  will  freeze  if  I  do  not  move  about. 

You  shall  feel  better  soon,  I  think. 

She  shall  be  fifteen  years  old  to-morrow. 

I  shall  find  it  for  you  if  you  shall  bring  the  book  to  me. 

You  will  have  it  if  I  can  get  it  for  you. 


Errors  in  tne  Form  of  the  Verb.  215 


He  will  have  it  if  he  shall  take  the  trouble  to  ask  for  it. 

He  will  not  do  it  if  I  can  prevent  him. 

I  will  drown,  nobody  shall  help  me. 

I  will  be  obliged  to  you  if  you  shall  attend  to  it. 

We  will  have  gone  by  to-morrow  morning. 

You  shall  disappoint  your  father  if  you  do  not  return. 

I  do  not  think  I  will  like  the  change. 

Next  Tuesday  shall  be  your  birthday. 

You  shall  be  late  if  you  do  not  hurry. 


LESSON  96. 
ERRORS   IN  THE   FORM   OF   THE   VERB. 

When  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  differ  in 
form,  they  are  often  confounded  in  use;  as,  UI  done  it;" 
14 1  seen  it." 

If  the  pupils  are  required  to  construct  short  sentences, 
using  the  Past  forms  in  Lesson  91  as  predicates,  and  the 
Past  Participle  forms  as  modifiers  or  as  completing  words 
in  compound  verbs,  they  may  reach  some  such  conclusions 
as  these  :  — 

The  Past  is  always  an  asserting,  or  predicate,  word  ;  the 
Past  Participle  never  asserts,  but  is  used  as  an  adjective 
modifier  or  as  the  completing  word  of  a  compound  verb ; 
the  Present  may  be  used  as  a  predicate  or  as  an  infinitive. 

Copy,  and  repeat  aloud,  these  exercises  :  — 

1.  Lay  down  your  pen.  3.    I  laid  down  my  pen. 

2.  Lie  down,  Rover.  4.    The  dog  then  lay  down. 


216  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


5.  I  have  laid  down  my  pen.  10.    I  sat  down  and  rested. 

6.  The  dog  has  lain  down.  11.    I  have  set  it  down. 

7.  Set  the  pail  down.  12.    I  have  sat  down. 

8.  Sit  down  and  rest.  13.    My  work  was  laid  aside. 

9.  I  then  set  it  down.  14.    I  was  lying  down. 

15.  The  trap  was  set  by  the  river. 

16.  I  was  sitting  by  the  river. 

17.  The  garment  sits  well. 

18.  The  hen  sits  on  her  eggs. 

19.  He  came  in  and  lay  down. 

20.  The  Mediterranean  lies  between  Europe  and  Africa. 

We  may  speak  of  laying  something  or  setting  something,  or  may 
say  that  something  is  laid  or  is  set;  but  we  cannot  speak  of  lying  or 
sitting  something,  or  of  something  being  lain  or  sat.  Set,  in  some 
of  its  meanings,  is  used  without  an  object;  as,  "The  sun  set;11  "He 
set  out  on  a  journey."  Set  is  generally  transitive ;  sit,  always  intran- 
sitive.    Lay  is  transitive ;  lie,  intransitive. 

Lay,  the  present  of  the  first  verb,  and  lay,  the  past  of  lie,  may 
easily  be  distinguished  by  the  difference  in  meaning  and  in  the  time 
expressed. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  ■ — 

Those  things  have  not  came  to-day. 

Wrong;  because  the  past  came  is  here  used  for  the  past 
participle  come.  The  present  perfect  tense  is  formed  by 
prefixing  have  to  the  past  participle. 

I  done  all  my  work  before  breakfast. 

I  come  in  a  little  late  yesterday. 

He  has  went  to  my  desk  without  permission. 


Errors  in  the  Form  of  the  Verb.  217 


That  stupid  fellow  set  down  on  my  new  hat. 

He  sat  the  chair  in  the  corner. 

Sit  that  plate  on  the  table  and  let  it  set. 

I  have  set  in  this  position  a  long  time. 

That  child  will  not  lay  still  or  set  still  a  minute. 

I  laid  down  under  the  tree  and  enjoyed  the  scenery. 

Lie  that  stick  on  the  table  and  let  it  lay. 

Those  boys  were  drove  out  of  the  fort  three  times. 

I  have  rode  through  the  park. 

I  done  what  I  could. 

He  has  not  spoke  to-day. 

The  leaves  have  fell  from  the  trees. 

This  sentence  is  wrote  badly. 

He  throwed  his  pen  down  and  said  that  the  point  was  broke. 

He  teached  me  grammar. 

I  seen  him  when  he  done  it. 

My  hat  was  took  off  my  head  and  throwed  out  of  the  window. 

The  bird  has  flew  into  that  tall  tree. 

I  was  chose  leader. 

I  have  began  to  do  better.     I  begun  this  morning. 

My  breakfast  was  ate  in  a  hurry. 

Your  dress  sets  well. 

That  foolish  old  hen  is  setting  on  a  wooden  egg. 

He  has  tore  it  up  and  throwed  it  away. 

William  has  took  my  knife,  and  I  am  afraid  he  has  stole  it. 

This  should  be  well  shook. 

I  begun  to  sing  before  I  knowed  what  I  was  doing. 

We  drunk  from  a  pure  spring. 

I  thought  you  had  forsook  us. 

His  pencil  is  nearly  wore  up. 

He  come  and  tell  me  all  he  knowed  about  it. 


218 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


LESSON  97. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 
To  the  Teacher.  — See  "  Scheme,"  p.  269. 

How  many  modifications  have  verbs  1  Ans.  —  Five ;  viz.,  voice, 
mode,  tense,  number,  and  person.  Define  voice.  How  many  voices 
are  there  1  What  verbs  have  voice  f  Define  each.  Illustrate.  What 
is  mode  ?  How  many  modes  are  there  ?  What  mode  is  rejected  by 
some  ?  Define  each.  What  is  an  infinitive  ?  What  is  a  participle  ? 
How  many  different  kinds  of  participles  are  there  ?  Define  each. 
Illustrate.  What  is  tense'?  How  many  tenses  are  there?  Define 
each.  Illustrate.  What  are  the  number  and  the  person  of  a  verb  ? 
Illustrate.  What  is  conjugation?  What  is  synopsis?  What  are 
auxiliaries  ?  Name  the  auxiliaries.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of 
a  verb  ?  Why  are  they  so  called  ?  How  does  a  verb  agree  with  its 
subject  ?  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects,  how  does  it  agree  ? 
Illustrate  the  uses  of  shall  and  will.     Of  lie,  lay,  sit,  and  set. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Select  some  of  the  preceding  exercises,  and  require 
the  pupils  to  write  the  parsing  of  all  the  verbs.  See  Lessons  34,  35,  48, 
49,  and  56. 


Model  for  "Written  Parsing  —  Verbs.  - 
farm,  ivanders  away  to  seek  new  lands. 


The  Yankee,  selling  his 


Classification. 

Modifications. 

Syntax. 

Verbs. 
1  selling 
wanders 
lseek 

Kind. 
Pr.  Par.,  Ir.,  Tr. 
Reg.,  Int. 
Inf.,  Ir.,  Tr. 

Voice. 
Ac. 

Ac. 

Mode. 
Ind. 

Tense. 
Pres. 

Num. 

Sing. 

Per. 

3d. 

Mod.  of  Yankee. 
Pred.  of        " 
Prin.  word  in  phrase 
Mod.  of  wanders. 

1  Participles  and  Infinitives  have  no  person  or  number. 


Composition.  219 


LESSON  98. 
COMPOSITION. 


Participles1  sometimes  partake  of  the  nature  of  the 
noun  while  they  retain  the  nature  of  the  verb. 

Use  each  of  these  phrases  in  a  sentence,  and  explain  the 
nature  of  the  word  in  ing :  — 

Model. —  " in  building  a  snow  fort;"  "They  were  en- 
gaged in  building  a  snow  fort"  Building,  like  a  noun,  follows  the 
preposition  in,  as  the  principal  word  in  the  phrase ;  and,  like  a  verb, 
it  takes  the  object  complement  fort. 

by  foretelling  storms.     by  helping  others.     on 

approaching  the  house.     in  catching  fish. 

Use  the  following  phrases  as  subjects  :  — 

Walking   in  the   garden .     His    writing   that  letter . 


Breaking  a  promise . 

Use  each  of  these  phrases  in  a  complex  sentence,  letting 
some  of  the  dependent  clauses  modify  as  adjectives,  and 
some  as  adverbs  :  — 

in  sledges.      up  the  Hudson.     down  the  Khine. 

through  the  Alps.     with  snow  and  ice.     into  New 


York  Bay.     on  the  prairie.     at  Saratoga. 

Build  a  short  sentence  containing  all  the  parts  of  speech. 

1  If  different  names  for  the  words  in  ing  that  have  an  adjective  use  and 
for  those  that  have  a  noun  use  are  desired,  retain  participle  for  the  first 
and  assign  nounal  verb  to  the  second.  We  suggest  these  distinguishing 
names  in  "Higher  Lessons,"  and  use  them  in  the  "High  School 
Grammar." 


220  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Expand  the  following  simple  sentence  into  twelve 
sentences  :  — 

Astronomy  teaches  the  size,  form,  nature,  and  motions  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars. 

Contract  the  following  awkward  compound  sentence 
into  a  neat  simple  sentence  :  — 

Hannibal  passed  through  Gaul,  and  then  he  crossed  the  Alps,  and 
then  came  down  into  Italy,  and  then  he  defeated  several  Roman 
generals. 

Change  the  following  complex  sentences  to  compound 
sentences  :  — 

When  he  asked  me  the  question,  I  answered  him  courteously. 
Morse,  the  man  who  invented  the  telegraph,  was  a  public  bene- 
factor. 

When  spring  comes,  the  birds  will  return. 

Contract  the  following  complex  sentences  into  simple 
sentences  by  changing  the  verb  in  the  dependent  clause  to 
the  form  in  ing  :  — 

A  ship  which  was  gliding  along  the  horizon  attracted  our 
attention. 

I  saw  a  man  who  was  plowing  a  field. 

When  the  shower  had  passed,  we  went  on  our  way. 

I  heard  that  he  wrote  that  article. 

That  he  was  a  foreigner  was  well  known. 

I  am  not  sure  that  he  did  it. 

Every  pupil  who  has  an  interest  in  this  work  will  prepare 
for  it. 


Miscellaneous    Errors.  221 


Change  the  following  compound  sentences  to  complex 

sentences  :  — 

Model.  —  Morning  dawns,  and  the  clouds  disperse  = 
When  morning  dawns,  the  clouds  disperse. 

Avoid  swearing  ;  it  is  a  wicked  habit. 
Pearls  are  valuable,  and  they  are  found  in  oyster  shells. 
Dickens  wrote  David  Copperfield,  and  he  died  in  1870. 
Some  animals  are  vertebrates,  and  they  have  a  backbone. 

Expand  each  of  the  following  sentences  as  much  as  you 
properly  may  :  — 

Indians  dance.     The  clock  struck.     The  world  moves. 


LESSON    99. 
MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS. 

Correct  the  following  errors  :  — 

I  have  got  that  book  at  home. 

Wrong;  because  have,  alone,  asserts  possession.  GoU 
used  in  the  sense  of  obtained,  is  correct ;  as,  "  I  have  just 
got  the  book" 

Have  you  got  time  to  help  me  % 

There  is  many  mistakes  in  my  composition. 

Wrong ;  because  is  should  agree  with  its  plural  subject 
mistakes.  The  adverb  there  is  often  used  to  introduce  a 
sentence,  that  the  subject  may  follow  the  predicate.  This 
often  makes  the  sentence  smooth  and  gives  variety. 


l/22  Graded  Lessons  in   English. 


There  goes  my  mother  and  sister. 
Here  comes  the  soldiers. 
There  was  many  friends  to  greet  him. 
It  ain't  there. 

AinH  is  a  vulgar  contraction.     Correction  —  It  is  not 

there. 

I  have  made  up  my  mind  that  it  ain't  no  use. 
'Tain't  so  bad  as  you  think. 
Two  years'  interest  were  due. 
Every  one  of  his  acts  were  criticised. 
I,  Henry,  and  you  have  been  chosen. 

Wrong;  for  politeness  requires  that  you  should  mention 
the  one  spoken  to,  first;  the  one  spoken  of,  next;  and 
yourself,  last. 

He  invited  you  and  I  and  Mary. 
Me  and  Jane  are  going  to  the  fair. 
I  only  want  a  little  piece. 
He  is  a  handsome,  tall  man. 
Did  you  sleep  good  ? 
How  much  trouble  one  has,  don't  they  ? 
He  inquired  for  some  tinted  ladies'  note  paper. 
You  needn't  ask  me  nothing  about  it, 
for  I  haven't  got  no  time  to  answer. 
Him  that  is  diligent  will  succeed. 
He  found  the  place  sooner  than  me. 
Who  was  that  ?     It  was  me  and  him. 
If  I  was  her,  I  would  say  less. 
Bring  me  them  tongs. 
Us  boys  have  a  baseball  club. 
Whom  did  you  say  that  it  was  ? 


Analysis  and  Parsings  223 


Who  did  you  speak  to  just  now  ? 

Who  did  you  mean  when  you  said  that  ? 

Where  was  you  when  I  called  % 

There's  twenty  of  us  going. 

Circumstances  alters  cases. 

Tell  them  to  set  still. 

He  laid  down  by  the  fire. 

She  has  lain  her  book  aside. 

It  takes  him  everlastingly. 

That  was  an  elegant  old  rock. 


LESSON  100. 
ANALYSIS   AND  PARSING. 

1.  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain. 

2.  Strike  !  till  the  last  armed  foe  expires  ! 

3.  You  wrong  me,  Brutus. 

4.  Shall  we  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction  % 

5.  Why  stand  we  here  idle  % 

6.  Give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death  ! 

7.  Thy  mercy,  0  Lord,  is  in  the  heavens,  and  thy  faithfulness 
reacheth  unto  the  clouds. 

8.  The  clouds  poured  out  water,  the  skies  sent  out  a  sound,  the 
voice  of  thy  thunder  was  in  the  heaven. 

9.  The  heavens  declare  his  righteousness,  and  all  the  people  see 
his  glory. 

10.  The  verdant  lawn,  the  shady  grove,  the  variegated  landscape, 
the  boundless  ocean,  and  the  starry  firmament  are  beautiful  and 
magnificent  objects. 

11.  When  you  grind  your  corn,  give  not  the  flour  to  the  devil  and 
the  bran  to  God. 


224  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


12.  That  which  the  fool  does  in  the  end  the  wise  man  does  at  the 
beginning. 

13.  Xerxes  commanded  the  largest  army  that  was  ever  brought 
into  the  field. 

14.  Without  oxygen,  fires  would  cease  to  burn,  and  all  animals 
would  immediately  die. 

15.  Liquids,  when  acted  upon  by  gravity,  press  downward,  up- 
ward, and  sideways. 

16.  Matter  exists  in  three  states  —  the  solid  state,  the  liquid 
state,  and  the  gaseous  state. 

17.  The  blending  of  the  seven  prismatic  colors  produces  white 
light. 

18.  Soap-bubbles,  when  they  are  exposed  to  light,  exhibit  colored 
rings. 

19.  He  who  yields  to  temptation  debases  himself  with  a  debase- 
ment from  which  he  can  never  arise. 

20.    Young  eyes  that  last  year  smiled  in  ours 
Now  point  the  rifle's  barrel ; 
And  hands  then  stained  with  fruits  and  flowers 
Bear  redder  stains  of  quarrel. 

CAPITAL  LETTERS   AND   PUNCTUATION. 

Capital  Letters.  —  The  first  word  of  (1)  a  sentence, 
(2)  a  line  of  poetry,  (3)  a  direct  quotation  making  com- 
plete sense  and  a  direct  question  introduced  into  a  sentence, 
and  (4)  phrases  or  clauses  separately  numbered  or  para- 
graphed should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.  Begin  with 
a  capital  letter  (5)  proper  names  and  words  derived  from 
them,  (6)  names  of  things  personified,  and  (7)  most  abbre- 


Capital   Letters  and  Punctuation.  225 


viations.  Write  in  capital  letters  (8)  the  words  Zand  0, 
and  (9)  numbers  in  the  Roman  notation.1 

Examples.  —  1.    The  judicious  are  always  a  minority. 

2.    Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise ; 
Act  well  your  part,  there  all  the  honor  lies. 

3.  The  question  is,  "  Can  law  make  people  honest  1 "  4.  Paint- 
ings are  useful  for  these  reasons  :  1.    They  please;  2.    They  instruct. 

5.  The  heroic  Nelson  destroyed  the  French  fleet  in  Aboukir  Bay. 

6.  Next,  Anger  rushed,  his  eyes  on  fire.  7.  The  Atlantic  ocean 
beat  Mrs.  Partington.  8.  The  use  of  0  and  oh  I  am  now  to  explain. 
9.    Napoleon  II.  never  came  to  the  throne. 

Period.  —  Place  a  period  after  (1)  a  declarative  and  an 
imperative  sentence,  (2)  an  abbreviation,  and  (3)  a  num- 
ber written  in  the  Roman  notation. 

For  examples  see  1,  7,  and  9  above. 

Interrogation  Point. — Every  direct  interrogative  sen- 
tence or  clause  should  be  followed  by  an  interrogation 
point. 

Example.  —  King  Agrippa,  believest  thou  the  prophets  ? 

Exclamation  Point. — All  exclamatory  expressions  must 
be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Example.  —  Oh  !  bloodiest  picture  in  the  book  of  time  ! 

1  Smaller  letters  are  preferred  where  numerous  references  to  chapters, 
etc.,  are  made. 


226  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Comma.  —  Set  off  by  the  comma  (1)  a  phrase  out  of  its 
natural  order  or  not  closely  connected  with  the  word  it 
modifies;  (2)  an  explanatory  modifier  that  does  not  restrict 
the  modified  term  or  combine  closely  with  it;  (3)  a  parti- 
ciple used  as  an  adjective  modifier,  with  the  words  belong- 
ing to  it,  unless  restrictive;  (4)  the  adjective  clause  when 
not  restrictive;  (5)  the  adverb  clause  unless  it  closely 
follows  and  restricts  the  word  it  modifies;  (6)  a  word  or 
phrase  independent  or  nearly  so;  (7)  a  direct  quotation 
introduced  into  a  sentence,  unless  formally  introduced ; 

(8)  a  noun  clause  used  as  an  attribute  complement;  and 

(9)  a  term  connected  to  another  by  or  and  having  the 
same  meaning.  Separate  by  the  comma  (10)  connected 
words  and  phrases  unless  all  the  conjunctions  are  ex- 
pressed; (11)  independent  clauses  when  short  and  closely 
connected;  and  (12)  the  parts  of  a  compound  predicate 
and  of  other  phrases  when  long  or  differently  modified. 

Examples.  —  1.  In  the  distance,  icebergs  look  like  masses  of 
burnished  metal.  2.  Alexandria,  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  is 
an  ill-looking  city.  3.  Labor,  diving  deep  into  the  earth,  brings 
up  long-hidden  stores  of  coal.  4.  The  sun,  which  is  the  center  of 
our  system,  is  millions  of  miles  from  us.  5.  When  beggars  die, 
there  are  no  comets  seen.  6.  Gentlemen,  this,  then,  is  your  verdict. 
7.  God  said,  "  Let  there  be  light."  8.  Nelson's  signal  was,  "  Eng- 
land expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty."  9.  Eubbers,  or  overshoes, 
are  worn  to  keep  the  feet  dry.  10.  The  sable,  the  seal,  and  the  otter 
furnish  us  rich  furs.  11.  His  dark  eye  flashed,  his  proud  breast  heaved, 
his  cheek's  hue  came  and  went.  12.  Flights  of  birds  darken  the  air, 
and  tempt  the  traveler  with  the  promise  of  abundant  provisions. 


Punctuation.  227 


Semicolon.  —  Independent  clauses  (1)  when  slightly 
connected,  or  (2)  when  themselves  divided  by  the  comma, 
must  be  separated  by  the  semicolon.     Use  the  semicolon 

(3)  between  serial  phrases  or  clauses  having  a  common 
dependence  on  something  that  precedes  or  follows  ;  and 

(4)  before  as,  viz.,  to  wit,  namely,  i.e.,  and  that  is,  when 
they  introduce  examples  or  illustrations. 

Examples.  —  1.  The  furnace  blazes ;  the  anvil  rings ;  the  busy 
wheels  whirl  round.  2.  As  Caesar  loved  me,  I  weep  for  him ;  as  he 
was  fortunate,  I  rejoice  at  it ;  as  he  was  valiant,  I  honor  him ;  but, 
as  he  was  ambitious,  I  slew  him.  3.  He  drew  a  picture  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  our  Saviour  5  his  trial  before  Pilate ;  his  ascent  of  Calvary  ; 
his  crucifixion  and  death.  4.  Gibbon  writes,  "I  have  been  sorely 
afflicted  with  gout  in  the  hand ;  to  wit,  laziness." 

Colon.  —  Use  the  colon  (1)  between  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence when  these  parts  are  themselves  divided  by  the  semi- 
colon ;  and  (2)  before  a  quotation  or  an  enumeration  of 
particulars  when  formally  introduced. 

Examples.  —  1.  Canning's  features  were  handsome  ;  his  eye,  though 
deeply  ensconced  under  his  eyebrows,  was  full  of  sparkle  and  gayety : 
the  features  of  Brougham  were  harsh  in  the  extreme.  2.  To  Len- 
tulus  and  Gellius  bear  this  message :  "  Their  graves  are  measured. " 

Dash.  — Use  the  dash  where  there  is  an  omission  (1)  of 
letters  or  figures,  and  (2)  of  such  words  as  as,  namely,  or 
that  is,  introducing  illustrations  or  equivalent  expressions. 
Use  the  dash  (3)  where  the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly, 
and  the  same  thought  is  resumed  after  a  slight  suspension, 


22S  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


or  another  takes  its  place  ;  and  (4)  before  a  word  or 
phrase  repeated  at  intervals  for  emphasis.  The  dash 
may  be  used  (5)  instead  of  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  may 
(6)  follow  other  marks,  adding  to  their  force. 

Examples.  —  1.  In  M w,  ver.  3-11,  you  may  find  the  "beati- 
tudes." 2.  There  are  two  things  certain  in  this  world  —  taxes  and 
death.  3.  I  said  —  I  know  not  what.  4.  I  never  would  lay  down 
my  arms  —  never  —  nevee  —  NEVER.  5.  Fulton  started  a  steam- 
boat—  he  called  it  the  Clermont  —  on  the  Hudson  in  1807.  6.  My 
dear  Sir,  —  I  write  this  letter  for  information. 

Marks  of  Parenthesis. — Marks  of  parenthesis  may  be 
used  to  inclose  what  has  no  essential  connection  with  the 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

Example.  —  The  noun  (Lat.  nomen,  ,a  name)  is  the  first  part  of 
speech. 

Apostrophe.  —  Use  the  apostrophe  (1)  to  mark  the  omis- 
sion of  letters,  (2)  in  the  pluralizing  of  letters,  figures, 
and  characters,  and  (3)  to  distinguish  the  possessive  from 
other  cases. 

Examples.  —  1.  Bo't  of  John  Jones  10  lbs.  of  butter.  2.  What 
word  is  there  one-half  of  which  is  p's  9  3.  He  washed  the  disciples' 
feet. 

Hyphen.  —  Use  the  hyphen  (-)  (1)  between  the  parts  of 
compound  words  that  have  not  become  consolidated,  and 
(2)  between  syllables  when  a  word  is  divided. 

Examples.  —  1.  Work-baskets  are  convenient.  2.  Divide  basket 
thus:   bas-ket. 


Letter-Writing.  229 


Quotation  Marks.  —  Use  quotation  marks  to  inclose  a 
copied  word  or  passage.  If  the  quotation  contains  a  quo- 
tation, the  latter  is  inclosed  within  single  marks. 

Example.  —  The  sermon  closed  with  this  sentence,  "  God  said, 
'Let  there  be  light/" 

Brackets.  — Use  brackets  []  to  inclose  what,  in  quoting 
another's  words,  you  insert  by  way  of  explanation  or  cor- 
rection. 

Example.  '■ —  The  Psalmist  says,  u  I  prevented  [anticipated]  the 
dawning  of  the  morning." 

LETTER- WRITING. 
In  writing  a  letter  there  are  six  things  to  consider  — 
the  heading,  the  introduction,  the  body  of  the  letter,  the 
conclusion,  the  folding,  and  the  superscription. 

The  Heading. 

Parts.  —  The  Heading  consists  of  the  name  of  the  Place 
at  which  the  letter  is  written,  and  the  Date.  If  you  write 
from  a  city,  give  the  door-number,  the  name  of  the  street, 
the  name  of  the  city,  and  the  name  of  the  state.  If  you 
are  at  a  hotel  or  a  school  or  any  other  well-known  institu- 
tion, its  name  may  take  the  place  of  the  door-number  and 
the  name  of  the  street.  If  you  write  from  a  village  or 
other  country  place,  give  your  post-office  address,  the  name 
of  the  county,  and  that  of  the  state. 

The  Date  consists  of  the  name  of  the  month,  the  day 
of  the  month,  and  the  year. 


230  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


How  Written.  —  Begin  the  Heading  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  from  the  top  of  the  page  —  on  the* first  ruled  line 
of  commercial  note  —  and  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  middle 
of  the  page.  If  the  Heading  is  very  short,  it  may  stand 
on  one  line.  If  it  occupies  more  than  one  line,  the  second 
line  should  begin  further  to  the  right  than  the  first,  and 
the  third  further  to  the  right  than  the  second. 

The  Date  stands  upon  a  line  by  itself  if  the  heading 
occupies  two  or  more  lines. 

The  door-number,  the  day  of  month,  and  the  year  are 
written  in  figures ;  the  rest,  in  words.  Each  important 
word  begins  with  a  capital  letter,  each  item  is  set  off  by 
the  comma,  and  the  whole  closes  with  a  period. 

Study  what  has  been  said,  and  write  the  following  head- 
ings according  to  these  models  :  — 

1.  Hull,  Mass.,  Nov.  1,  1860.        3.  Newburyport,  Mass., 

2.  1466  Colorado  Ave.,  June  30,  1900. 

Rochester,  N.Y.,  4.  Stark ville,  Herkimer  Co.,  N.Y., 

Apr.  3,  1870.  Dec.  19,  1871. 

1.  n  y  rondout  11  1849  oct.  2.  staten  island  port  richmond  1877 
25  January.  3.  brooklyn  march  1871  mansion  house  29.  4.  execu- 
tive chamber  vt  february  montpelier  1869  27.  5.  Washington  frank- 
lin co  mo  nov  16  1874.  6.  fifth  ave  may  new  york  460  9  1901. 
7.  Washington  d  c  march  1900  520  Pennsylvania  ave  16. 

The  Introduction. 

Parts.  —  The  Introduction  consists  of  the  Address  —  the 
Name,  the  Title,  and  the  Place  of  Business  or  the  Resi- 


Letter-Writing.  231 


dence  of  the  one  addressed  —  and  the  Salutation.  Titles 
of  respect  and  courtesy  should  appear  in  the  Address. 
Prefix  Mr.  (plural,  Messrs.}  to  a  man's  name;  Master  to 
a  boy's  name ;  Miss  to  the  name  of  a  girl  or  an  unmarried 
lady  ;  Mrs.  to  the  name  of  a  married  lady.  Prefix  Dr.  to 
the  name  of  a  physician,  or  write  M.D.  after  his  name. 
Prefix  Rev.  (or  The  Rev.}  to  the  name  of  a  clergyman; 
if  he  is  a  Doctor  of  Divinity,  prefix  Rev.  Dr.,  or  write  Rev. 
before  his  name  and  D.D.  after  it ;  if  you  do  not  know  his 
Christian  name,  prefix  Rev.  Mr.  or  Rev.  Dr.  to  his  sur- 
name, but  never  Rev.  alone.  Esq.  is  added  to  the  name  of 
a  lawyer,  and  to  the  names  of  other  prominent  men.  Avoid 
such  combinations  as  the  following  :  Mr.  John  Smith, 
Esq.;  Dr.  John  Smith,  M.D. ;  Mr.  John  Smith,  M.D. 

Salutations  vary  with  the  station  of  the  one  addressed, 
or  the  writer's  degree  of  intimacy  with  him.  Strangers 
may  be  addressed  as  Sir,  Rev.  Sir,  General,  Madam,  Miss 
Brown,  etc.  ;  acquaintances  as  Dear  Sir,  Dear  Madam, 
etc.  ;  friends  as  My  dear  Sir,  My  dear  Madam,  My  dear 
Mr.  Brown,  etc. ;  and  near  relatives  and  other  dear  friends 
as  My  dear  Wife,  My  dear  Boy,  Dearest  Ellen,  etc. 

How  Written. — The  Address  may  follow  the  Heading, 
beginning  on  the  next  line  or  the  next  but  one,  and  stand- 
ing on  the  left  side  of  the  page  ;  or  it  may  stand  in  cor- 
responding position  after  the  Body  of  the  Letter  and  the 
Conclusion.  If  the  letter  is  written  to  a  very  intimate 
friend,  the  Address  may  appropriately  be  placed  at  the 


232  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


bottom  of  the  letter ;  but  in  other  letters,  especially  those 
on  ordinary  business,  it  should  be  placed  at  the  top  and  as 
directed  above.  There  should  always  be  a  narrow  margin 
on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  page,  and  the  Address  should 
always  begin  on  the  marginal  line.  If  the  Address  occu- 
pies more  than  one  line,  the  initial  words  of  these  lines 
should  slope  to  the  right  as  in  the  Heading. 

Begin  the  Salutation  on  the  marginal  line  or  a  little  to 
the  right  of  it,  when  the  Address  occupies  three  lines ;  on 
the  marginal  line  or  further  to  the  right  than  the  second 
line  of  the  Address  begins,  when  this  occupies  two  lines  ; 
a  little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line,  when  the  Address 
occupies  one  line  ;  on  the  marginal  line,  when  the  Address 
stands  below. 

Every  important  word  in  the  Address  should  begin  with 
a  capital  letter.  All  the  items  of  it  should  be  set  off  by 
the  comma;  and,  as  it  is  an  abbreviated  sentence,  it  should 
close  with  a  period.  Every  important  word  in  the  Salu- 
tation should  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and^  the  whole 
should  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

Study  what  has  been  said,  and  write  the  following  in- 
troductions according  to  these  models  :  — 

1.  Dear  Father,  3.  Messrs.  Clark  &  Brown, 

I  write,  etc.  Quogue,  KY. 

2.  The  Rev.  M.  H.  Buckham,  D.D.,  Gentlemen, 

President  of  U.  V.  M.,  4.  Messrs.  Tiffany  &  Co., 

Burlington,  Vt.  2  Milk  St.,  Boston. 

My  dear  Sir,  Dear  Sirs, 


Letter-Writing.  233 


1.  henry  s  snow  lid  president  of  polytechnic  institute  brooklyn  n  y 
dear  sir.  2.  dr  John  h  hobart  burge  64  livingston  st  brooklyn  n  y 
sir.  3.  prof  geo  n  boardman  Chicago  ill  dear  teacher.  4.  to  the 
president  executive  mansion  Washington  d  c  mr  president.  5.  rev  t 
k  bunker  elmira  n  y  sir.  6.  messrs  gilbert  &  sons  gentlemen  mass 
boston.  7.  mr  george  r  curtis  minn  rochester  my  friend  dear.  8.  to 
the  honorable  John  hay  secretary  of  state  Washington  d  c  sir. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter. 

The  Beginning.  —  Begin  the  Body  of  the  Letter  at  the 
end  of  the  Salutation,  and  on  the  same  line  if  the  Intro- 
duction consists  of  four  lines  —  in  which  case  the  comma 
after  the  Salutation  should  be  followed  by  a  dash  ;  other- 
wise, on  the  line  below. 

Style. — Be  perspicuous.  Paragraph  and  punctuate  as 
in  other  kinds  of  writing.  Spell  correctly  ;  write  legibly, 
neatly,  and  with  care.  A  letter  tells  a  great  deal  of  the 
writer  —  more,  oftentimes,  than  the  writer  means  to  say 
or  supposes  that  he  is  saying. 

Letters  of  friendship  should  be  natural,  familiar,  and 
colloquial.  Whatever  is  interesting  to  you  will  be  inter- 
esting to  your  friends. 

Business  letters  should  be  brief,  and  the  sentences  should 
be  short,  concise,  and  to  the  point. 

In  formal  notes  the  third  person  is  generally  used  in- 
stead of  the  first  and  second  ;  there  is  no  Introduction,  no 
Conclusion,  no  Signature,  only  the  name  of  the  Place  and 
the  Date  at  the  bottom,  on  the  left  side  of  the  page. 


234  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


The  Conclusion. 

Parts.  — The  Conclusion  consists  of  the  Complimentary 
Close  and  the  Signature.  The  forms  of  the  Complimentary 
Close  are  many,  and  are  determined  by  the  relations  of 
the  writer  to  the  one  addressed.  In  letters  of  friendship, 
you  may  use  Your  sincere  friend;  Yours  affectionately ; 
Your  loving  son  or  daughter,  etc.  In  business  letters,  you 
may  use  Yours;  Yours  truly ;  Truly  yours;  Yours  respect- 
fully;  Very  respectfully  yours,  etc.  In  official  letters,  use 
I  have  the  honor  to  be,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant ;  Very  re- 
spectfully, your  most  obedient  servant. 

The  Signature  consists  of  your  Christian  name  and  your 
surname.  In  addressing  a  stranger  write  your  Christian 
name  in  full.  A  lady  addressing  a  stranger  should  prefix 
her  title  — Miss  or  Mrs.  —  to  her  own  name,  enclosing  it 
within  marks  oi  parenthesis  if  she  wishes. 

How  Written. — The  Conclusion  should  begin  near  the 
middle  of  the  first  line  below  the  Body  of  the  Letter,  and 
should  slope  to  the  right  like  the  Heading  and  the  Address. 
Begin  each  line  of  it  with  a  capital  letter,  and  punctuate 
as  in  other  writing,  following  the  whole  with  a  period. 
The  Signature  should  be  very  plain. 

The  Folding. 

The  Folding  is  a  simple  matter  when,  as  now,  the  en- 
velope used  is  adapted  in  length  to  the  width  of  the  sheet. 
Take  the  letter  as  it  lies  before  you,  with  its  first  page 


Letter- Writing.  235 


uppermost,  turn  up  the  bottom  of  it  about  one-third  the 
length  of  the  sheet,  bring  the  top  down  over  this,  taking 
care  that  the  sides  are  even,  and  press  the  parts  together. 
Taking  the  envelope  with  its  back  toward  you,  insert  the 
letter,  putting  in  first  the  edge  last  folded. 

The  form  of  the  envelope  may  require  the  letter  to  be 
folded  in  the  middle.  Other  conditions  may  require  other 
ways  of  folding. 

The  Superscription. 

Parts.  —  The  Superscription  is  what  is  written  on  the 
outside  of  the  envelope.  It  is  the  same  as  the  Address, 
consisting  of  the  Name,  the  Title,  and  the  full  Directions 
of  the  one  addressed. 

How  Written.  —  The  Superscription  should  begin  near 
the  middle  of  the  envelope  and  near  the  left  edge  — 
the  envelope  lying  with  its  closed  side  toward  you  —  and 
should  occupy  three  or  four  lines.  These  lines  should 
slope  to  the  right  as  in  the  Heading  and  the  Address,  the 
spaces  between  the  lines  should  be  the  same,  and  the  last 
line  should  end  near  the  lower  right-hand  corner.  On  the 
first  line  the  Name  and  the  Title  should  stand.  If  the  one 
addressed  is  in  a  city,  the  door-number  and  name  of  the 
street  should  be  on  the  second  line,  the  name  of  the  city 
on  the  third,  and  the  name  of  the  state  on  the  fourth.  If 
he  is  in  the  country,  the  name  of  the  post  office  should  be 
on  the  second  line,  the  name  of  the  county  on  the  third 
(or  by  itself  near  the  lower  left-hand  corner),  and  the 


236  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


name  of  the  state  on  the  fourth.  The  titles  following  the 
name  should  be  separated  from  it  and  from  each  other  by 
the  comma,  and  every  line  should  end  with  a  comma,  ex- 
cept the  last,  which  should  be  followed  by  a  period.  The 
lines  should  be  straight,  and  every  part  of  the  Superscrip- 
tion should  be  legible.  Place  the  stamp  at  the  upper 
right-hand  corner. 

We  give,  on  succeeding  pages,  a  few  letters  illustrating 
the  various  forms  used. 


Letter-Writing.  237 


Letter,  Ordering  Merchandise. 

TfbMAA.  i^fdju  %  Co:, 

2.50  GA^XbdAAmAj-Jfi.y, 

PlsuiM,' AJUruL  rrub  hu 
GAxxrmJb  :&xJ(OuM  Xlruu  ahliobji  vywyi- 

Q-o  oaAjdul-i/n  tkjb  AJiLbdicm  ot 
ttu,  oo-q-cU,  6m  3  SjlMAjl  Uwm,  jrti  a 

\JjooMji  i/vJbyvm,  yruu  iru,  hXU/i  amxL 
<nr\Aybo\ts  tlw  \mAroxuu., 

d-h&maA  £)o-cUL6. 


238  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Answer,  Inclosing  Invoice. 

2.50  B/uyxjudwVAj)  TU^ 

YY\A.3hoYYMLb  Doxhh, 

IXmAmAxjJv,  Iflli . 
£)-caA  Siti, 

Ui-e  -hoAht  tcr-doju-  MmL  "u/yuy  w 
G/La/mJ)  &x)(iAjlA6  -wjl  axyoxLb  o^AsAsA 
vvi  ijxmA  -fctteA-  ol  Xht  "~]th  i/Yibt. 

&Y\AW$JUL  1JA5W  will  M/Vuh  WW  VYWOUJb. 

K/-c  -hjyfvi  that  iAMAA]Xhimxi<  wdL 
AulcK  "Uovu  vvh  a-coti  oonShjaru  o/ykL 
■will  jxfwv-t  MyXuJdDjXoVVjr  im,  c^wal" 
aIaj,  omA  in  jvwab. 

V-tAAJ,  t/WMiy  Vj^yuAh, 

INVOICE. 

Thomas  Dodds, 

Bought  of  Peter  Hyde  &  Co. 


3  boxes  Sperm  Candles,  140  lbs.,  @  33c. 

7    do.    Adamantine  Extra  Candles,  182  lbs.,  "  26c. 

120  lbs.  Crushed  Sugar,  "  124c. 

60    do.  Coffee        do.,  "  lljc. 


47 
15 


$115 


20 
32 
00 
75 


27 


Letter-Writing:.  239 


Letter  of  Application. 

YftjeMAA  3UJi  ty  Hoick, 

5Y\xJubMuA;£t.yi\l. 

Uvat  a  c^aAaIu^  im,  vpvJh  iuyuM,  ib  vu- 
ca/KiX,  S  Imm,  hoaAMj  hy  ojlov  ototuaAI  odb  a 

S  a/wb  Milium,  vjuihh  a^cL,  amxi  arm, 
AXhJjYva  q/yxAj  in  ^/xjodlimZ  hjumK.    S 

hxKrvwo  SvvbZiXiAJjb ,  P))vroklrwvh)  omA  S 
</vvclo<u,  hj^Zimn/rviiah  o|  iow  cAoAxlg- 
faji  omA  AtamxiAAva  Kmn  vox,  PajU^jimL 
o|  UuiL  S^bJuJiAAXi/yri. 

jMvcdl  vt  qlaxL  tcr  |iAM^riX  rnAj&di  cX/M/yL 

Xk/VYVL  OJV\A  \JLcuUb  Cub  VpVo  rVbCJW  WAUYVUL. 


240  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Notes  of  Invitation  and  Acceptance 
(in  the  third  person). 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Brooks  request  Mr.     Churchill     has    much 

the  pleasure  of  Mr.  Churchill's  pleasure  in  accepting  Mr.  and 

company  at  a  social  gathering,  Mrs.  Brooks's  kind  invitation 

next    Tuesday    evening,    at   8  to    a    social    gathering,     next 

o'clock.  Tuesday  evening. 

$2  W.  81st  Street,  Oct.  5.  160  Fifth  Ave.,  Oct.  5. 

Letter  of  Introduction. 

Conxxyui.Tl.W, 

Q-uyuu,  (3w^vmxwb,  <Sa<^., 
PoxtlamxL,  Qcmm. 

St  qaama  rvub  ahJboX 

Gjyvu-  dUj/Y\liorbb  /\Po\h  wujlaa-  bt, 
gIAju  tcr  Atvour  Aa/vyi  S  aKoII  -06- 
hjvm  ab  a  J^uAJmjyujX  lanroX. 

iPeXe/v  Oo-ojaM,. 


Letter-Writing.  241 


A  Letter  of  Friendship. 


2.1  jQ-ta/n,  St.,  doitdxy,  Ohio; 

iO^c.ibjsqq. 

3  ca/WYuyt  hit 
v^r\h  'tv&wd  Icmxi  tcr^H,  at  fyvcrwu, 
Qjo<wyv  a/vui  im,  vary,  ofxL  hXcuob. 
S'Yi  wij  dhjuxryrib  amxL  irw  wvu, 

WvJiAAVa  -rWuA^),  3  OJYYb  o-ftwi/ 

nnrvu-  Xh/yikahXb  jvLoaa-  lhAAXX/nt 
aaAuajl  3  hxfvi  ook/u  nMAj>  vxronh^ 
ourui  -e/iK/w  vJrvJju  3  (amXItw  tcrrwu- 
\jubduA  im,  thjb  claM-A/ycrmj.    3 
-uroxdA  qaak,  Mr  taaaxK  tv  hm®ur 
-uAvat  ifxyu  alL  oXju  (Lovnn-  —  A*r 
mwch  her  tul  tfvat  vwur  aAvd, 
$\amj  3  anm,  im,  nMCrWv  lhjy\KjahXb, 
cjyuL  llvaZ  vvovo  6jj  irnAjuuL  VvuA£ 


242  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


'vnx  at  horwu" 

&v<A/iMwyvci  fuAJb  ib  oJb  \\JbuoJb- 
amL  cub  it  nuuL  In,  o\j  oo/vb  In,,  S 
Aafa|vo^.  3  a/rvb  MaAjl  S  jJvall  -uyi- 
j<m  aX  oil  -W  amxi  iru-,  aaAusyi  S 
qjX  coka  vnxh  -fct  oi  hornjiMxJi/YuM. 
m/u-  j^XuAxtb  ahJo  TixyD  hyu  KoJuL, 
amxL  /yyv\A'  XsMxKsAb  0AiuA%AmA  amxi 
■laJXhLil. 

Oct  -uAaXsu  rruo  a  Icrw^  faXfaji  ah 
h^rvrb  oh  v^yxh  act  tfii6(  omA  fall 

YYUaxJL  imHs  tor  -vouovi  oi  -tfu/ 
duuaA  cmM)  at  -tvcmvb. 

y<yuA  oMuytUmxjJjb  Ascnv, 

WM.  QLirMxmAjLhj  (La/vru^, 
3oMrvu2xLa^}  O-faJucr. 

1  In  familiar  (and  official)  letters,  the  Address  may  stand,  you  will 
remember,  at  the  bottom. 


Letter- Writing. 


243 


STAMP 


THaa  OlinoarnAsJb  (La/rKuA, 
3allmvaxLa&, 
SunmrmJX  Cc.  Oru/y. 


To  the  Teacher.  —  Have  your  pupils  write  complete  letters  and  notes 
of  all  kinds.  You  can  name  the  persons  to  whom  these  are  to  be 
addressed.  Attend  minutely  to  all  the  points.  Letters  of  introduction 
should  have  the  word  Introducing  (followed  by  the  name  of  the  one  intro- 
duced) at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  envelope.  This  letter  should 
not  be  sealed.  The  receiver  may  seal  it  before  handing  it  to  the  one 
addressed. 

Continue  this  work  of  letter-writing  until  the  pupils  have  mastered  all 
the  details,  and  are  able  easily  and  quickly  to  write  any  ordinary  letter. 


244  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


A  SUMMAKY  OF  THE   RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  subject  or  as  attribute  complement 
of  a  predicate  verb,  or  used  independently,  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

II.  The  attribute  complement  of  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  is  in 
the  same  case  (nominative  or  objective)  as  the  word  to  which  it  relates. 

III.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  possessive  modifier  is  in  the 
possessive  case. 

IV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  object  or  objective  complement, 
or  as  the  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase,  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

V.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  explanatory  modifier  is  in  the  same 
case  as  the  word  explained. 

VI.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person,  number,  and 
gender. 

With  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  the  pronoun  is  plural. 
With  two  or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the 
pronoun  is  singular. 

VII.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 
With  two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and,  the  verb  is  plural. 
With  two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  is 

singular. 

VIII.  A  participle  assumes  the  action  or  being,  and  is  used  like  an 
adjective  or  a  noun. 

IX.  An  infinitive  is  generally  introduced  by  to,  and  with  it  forms 
a  phrase  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

X.  Adjectives  modify  nouns  or  pronouns. 

XI.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

XII.  A  preposition  introduces  a  phrase  modifier,  and  shows  the 
relation,  in  sense,  of  its  principal  word  to  the  word  modified. 

XIII.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

XIV.  Interjections  are  used  independently. 


Proof- Marks.  245 


Proof-Marks. 


Remark. — The  following  are  some  of  the  marks  used  in  correcting 
proof-sheets  for  the  printer  :  — 

&        De-le  =  Strike  out. 

/\        Ca-ret  =  Something  to  be  inserted. 

This  calls  attention  to  points  or  letters  placed  in  the  margin 
as  corrections. 
O        This  calls  attention  to  the  period. 
tr.       Transpose. 

%       Begin  a  new  paragraph  with  the  word  preceded  by  [. 
No  %    No  new  paragraph. 
ty       This  calls  attention  to  the  apostrophe. 

To  the  Teacher. — We  suggest  that  the  pupils  learn  to  use  these 
marks  in  correcting  compositions.  The  following  exercises  are  given  as 
illustrations :  — 

»|0  Hml.GmA^JLA^r D.^kX^S^O., 

8-. |  Mm\  tiaU  3i*XcL 
«£,  C  Scdt  \aksL  <|xf>ty, 

Utah. 


246  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


VxyuAJboi  \hib 

yo-U/  qAjl  am,  -cooceiWiX  '{xtleA- 
'B^VcmMid  &rmJfbamwri]) omA 

£)avicL  Oaja|u/i|aXcL 
*  Jue/wu>ijei<  SWIWeA/, 
:y  sb am,  J9 -ux^a,  Cai. 


REVIEW  OF   GRADED   LESSONS. 


WORDS  — SPOKEN  AND   WRITTEN. 

Spoken  words  are  composed  of  sounds.  Written  words 
are  composed  of  letters  called  (1)  vowels  —  a,  e,  i,  o,  and 
u  —  representing  the  open  sounds,  and  (2)  consonants 
representing  (a)  obstructed  breath  vocalized ;  as,  b,  d,  g, 
etc.,  called  sonants,  and  (J)  obstructed  breath  unvocal- 
ized;  as,  p,  t,  k,  etc.,  called  surds. 

Spoken  and  written  words  form  verbal  language;  and  tones, 
gestures,  and  facial  expression  form  natural  language  —  used  to 
reenforce  spoken. 

Definition.  —  English  grammar  is  the  science  which  teaches 
the  forms,  uses,  and  relations  of  the  words  of  .the  English, 
language. 

Language  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  communicating 
thought,  and  the  unit  of  thought,  and  of  expression  there- 
fore, is 

A   SENTENCE. 

Definition.  — A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  express- 
ing  a  thought. 

Its  two  parts  are  subject  and  predicate. 

247 


248  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Definitions. 


The  subject  of  a  sentence  names  that  of  which  some- 
thing is  thought. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  tells  what  is  thought. 

A  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  denoting  related  ideas 
but  not  expressing  a  thought. 

A  clause  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  containing  a  subject 
and  its  predicate. 

A  modifier  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  joined  to  some 
part  of  a  sentence  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning. 

The  subject  with  its  modifiers  is  called  the  modified 
subject ;  and  the  predicate  with  its  modifiers  is  called  the 
modified  predicate. 

Greece,  which  is  the  most  noted  country  of  antiquity,  scarcely 
exceeded  in  size  and  in  population  the  half  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

The  whole  is  a  sentence;  Greece  is  subject,  exceeded  is  predicate ; 
Greece  .  .  .  antiquity  is  the  modified  subject,  scarcely  .  .  .  New 
York  is  the  modified  predicate;  which  .  .  .  antiquity  is  a  clause ; 
noted  and  scarcely  are  simple  word  modifiers ;  of  antiquity  is  a 
simple  phrase  modifier ;  in  size  and  in  population  is  a  compound 
phrase  modifier ;  of  the  state  of  New  York  is  a  complex  phrase 
modifier  —  the  phrase  of  New  York  modifying  state,  a  word  in  the 
phrase  of  the  state  —  and  which  .  .  .  antiquity  is  a  clause  modifier 
•f  Greece. 

Definitions. 

The  analysis  of  a  sentence  is  the  separation  of  it  into 
its  parts. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  249 


A  diagram  is  a  picture  of  the  offices  and  relations  of  the 
different  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Synthesis,  construction,  or  composition  is  the  putting 
together  (1)  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  to  form  sen- 
tences, (2)  of  sentences  to  form  a  paragraph,  and  (3)  of 
paragraphs  to  form  a  theme. 

We  group  words  into  classes  with  respect  to  their  office 
in  the  sentence.  These  classes,  eight  in  number  and 
called  parts  of  speech,  are  the  noun,  the  pronoun,  the  verb, 
the  adjective,  the  adverb,  the  preposition,  the  conjunction, 
and  the  interjection. 

The  first  five  of  these  undergo  what  are  called  modifica- 
tions —  changes  in  form,  meaning,  and  use. 

Clauses  Classified. 

He  that  runs  may  read  it ;  He  may  read  it  if  he  will  keep  the  fact 
secret;  It  is  true  that  he  read  it. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  there  are  two  clauses  and  two 
kinds  of  clauses.  Those  not  italicized  are  independent 
clauses;  those  italicized  are  dependent  clauses  —  the  first 
an  adjective  clause,  the  second  an  adverb  clause  of  condi- 
tion, and  the  last  a  noun  clause  explanatory. 

Definitions. 

A  dependent  clause  is  one  used  as  an  adjective,  an  adverb, 
or  a  noun. 

An  independent  clause  is  one  not  dependent  on  another 
clause. 


250  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Sentences  Classified. 


Knowledge  comes ;  Knowledge  comes,  but  wisdom  lingers ;  Know! 
edge  comes,  though  wisdom  lingers. 

The  first  is  a  simple  sentence ;  the  second  is  a  compound 
sentence,  made  up  of  two  independent  clauses;  and  the 
third  is  a  complex  sentence,  made  up  of  an  independent 
and  a  dependent  clause. 

Definitions. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  but  one  subject 
and  one  predicate,  either  or  both  of  which  may  be  com- 
pound. 

A  compound  sentence  is  one  composed  of  two  or  more 
independent  clauses. 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  composed  of  an  independent 
clause  and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

John  runs ;  Does  John  run  f  Eun,  John ;  How  John  runs  ! 
The  first  sentence  utters  a  fact,  the  second  asks  a  question,  the 
third  issues  a  command,  and  the  fourth  expresses  sudden  feeling. 

Definitions. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  is  used  to  affirm  or  to 
deny. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  ques- 
tion. 

An  imperative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  command 
or  an  entreaty. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  251 


An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  sudder 
thought  or  strong  feeling. 

THE   NOUN. 

Mary's  mother,  the  wife  of  the  merchant,  bought  hei  daughter  a 
house  a  few  months  ago ;  My  son,  make  wisdom  the  object  of  your 
life,  for  it  is  the  principal  thing. 

The  words  italicized  in  these  two  sentences  perform  very  different 
offices :  (1)  mother  is  subject,  (2)  house  is  object,  (3)  Mary's  is  a 
possessive  modifier  of  mother,  (4)  wife  is  explanatory  of  mother^ 
(5)  merchant  is  chief  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase,  (6)  daughter 
is  indirect  object  of  an  action,  (7)  months  has  an  adverbial  use 
measuring  time,  (8)  son  is  independent  by  address,  (9)  object  is 
objective  complement,  and  (10)  thing  is  attribute  complement 
But,  while  discharging  each  a  special  function,  they  all  have  on© 
function  —  they  name  persons  or  things,  and  hence  are  called  nouns. 

Definition.  —  A  noun  is  a  name  of  anything. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  nouns  —  those  naming  all  things 
of  a  certain  class,  and  hence  called  common  nouns,  and 
those  that  are  each  the  particular  name  of  an  individual 
<^f  a  class,  and  hence  called  proper  nouns. 

Definitions. 

A  common  noun  is  a  name  which  belongs  to  all  things 

of  a  class. 

A  proper  noun  is  the  particular  name  of  an  individuaL 
Nouns  have  four  modifications  —  number,  gender,  person^ 

and  case.  . 


252  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Number. 
Definitions. 
Number  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
denotes  one  thing  or  more  than  one. 
The  singular  number  denotes  one  thing. 
The  plural  number  denotes  more  than  one  thing. 

Rule. — The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly,  formed  by 
adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular. 

The  s  is  a  more  common  plural  ending  than  the  es. 

The  es  is  added  (1)  to  words  ending  in  s,  x,  z,  sh,  and  ch,  and 
makes  a  separate  syllable,  as  in  gases,  foxes,  topazes,  lashes,  and 
birches ;  (2)  to  many  nouns  in  o,  as  in  cargoes,  negroes,  and  mottoes ; 
(3)  to  nouns  in  y,  the  y  when  preceded  by  a  consonant  changing  to  i, 
as  in  cities,  daisies,  and  skies ;  and  (4)  to  some  nouns  in  f  or  fe,  the 
f  or  fe  changing  to  v,  as  in  loaves,  calves,  lives,  and  knives. 

Some  nouns  form  their  plural  irregularly,  (1)  by  internal  change, 

as  in  the  six  nouns,  man,  men ;  foot,  feet ;  tooth,  teeth  ;  goose,  geese ; 

louse,  lice ;  and  mouse,  mice ;  (2)  by  adding  en,  as  in  ox,  oxen  \  child, 

children ;  and  (3)  by  keeping  the  singular  form,  as  in  deer,  deer ;  and 

;heep,  sheep. 

Gender. 

Definitions. 

Gender  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 

distinguishes  sex. 

The  masculine  gender  denotes  the  male  sex. 

The  feminine  gender  denotes  the  female  sex. 

The  neuter  gender  denotes  want  of  sex. 

Gender  in  English  follows  the  sex  of  the  object  named. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  253 


Strictly  speaking,  there  can  be  but  two  genders,  as  there  can  be 
but  two  sexes  —  the  names  of  objects  without  sex  are  of  the  neuter 
(neither)  gender,  therefore. 

The  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the  feminine  from  the 
masculine  are  (1)  by  a  change  of  ending,  as  in  host,  host- 
ess ;  and  Jew,  Jewess  ;  (2)  by  a  change  of  a  word  in  the 
name,  as  in  man-servant,  maid-servant;  gentleman,  gen- 
tlewoman ;  and  peacock,  peahen ;  and  (3)  by  the  use  of 
words  wholly  or  radically  different ;  as,  boy,  girl ;  lord, 
lady;  and  wizard,  witch. 

Person. 

Number  and  gender  are  modifications  of  nouns  affecting 
the  meaning  —  number  almost  always  indicated  byr  the 
ending,  gender  sometimes. 

Person  is  a  modification  of  nouns  that  is  not  accom- 
panied by  form,  as  in 

I  Paul  have  written ;  Paul,  thou  art  beside  thyself;  He  brought 
Paul  before  Agrippa. 

Paul  retains  its  form,  though  in  the  first  it  names  the  speaker, 
and  is  of  the  first  person ;  in  the  second  it  names  the  one  spoken 
to,  and  is  of  the  second  person ;  and  in  the  third  it  names  the 
one  spoken  of,  and  is  in  the  third  person. 

Definitions. 

Person  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
denotes  the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one 
spoken  of. 


254  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


The  first  person  denotes  the  one  speaking. 
The  second  person  denotes  the  one  spoken  to. 
The  third  person  denotes  the  one  spoken  of. 

Case. 

The  bear  killed  the  man;  The  man  killed  the  bear;  Bear's 
grease  is  made  into  hair  oil. 

In  1  the  bear  is  represented  as  performing  an  action;  in  2  as 
receiving  an  action ;  in  3  as  possessing  something.  The  word  bear 
in  these  sentences  has  three  different  uses  and  is  in  the  three  cases  — 
nominative  in  1,  objective  in  2,  and  possessive  in  3  —  only  the 
possessive  being  indicated  by  form. 

In  the  illustrative  sentences  on  p.  251,  (1)  the  subject  mother, 
wife  explanatory  of  mother,  son  independent  by  address,  and  the 
attribute  complement  thing  are  all  in  the  nominative  case ;  (2) 
Mary's,  possessive  modifier  of  mother,  is  in  the  possessive  case ; 
and  (3)  merchant,  principal  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase,  daughter, 
indirect  object  of  an  action,  the  object  complement  house,  months, 
adverbial  to  denote  measure,  and  object,  the  objective  complement 
of  make,  are  all  in  the  objective  case. 

Definitions. 

The  attribute  complement  completes  the  predicate  and 
belongs  to  the  subject. 

The  object  complement  completes  the  predicate  and 
names  that  which  receives  the  act. 

The  objective  complement  completes  the  predicate  and 
belongs  to  the  object  complement. 

Case  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
denotes  its  office  in  the  sentence. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  255 


The  nominative  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its 
office  as  subject  or  as  attribute  complement. 

The  possessive  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its 
office  as  possessive  modifier. 

The  objective  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its 
office  as  object  complement,  or  as  principal  word  in  a 
prepositional  phrase. 

(The  definitions  of  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  give  only 
their  principal  offices.)  m 

Definition.  —  Declension  is  the  arrangement  of  the 
cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  two  numbers. 

Declension  of  Nouns. 

Nom.  boy,     boys,      lady,     ladies,      man,     men, 
Pos.    boy's,  boys',     lady's,  ladies',     man's,  men's, 
Obj.    boy ;    boys,      lady ;  ladies.      man ;   men. 

Rule.  —  The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed  in  the 
singular  by  adding  to  the  nominative  the  apostrophe  and 
the  letter  s  ('s);  in  the  plural,  by  adding  (>)  only.  If 
the  plural  does  not  end  in  s,  the  apostrophe  and  the  s 
are  both  added. 

The  preposition  of  and  the  objective  may  be  used  in 
place  of  the  possessive  —  the  wing  of  the  fl^/  =  th.e  fly's 
wing. 

The  possessive  sign  is  added  (1)  to  each  of  several  nouns  when 
modifying  different  words  ;  as,  Webster's  and  Worcester's  dictionary ; 
(2)  to  the  last  only,  when  modifying  the  same  word ;  as,  Ticknor  & 
Field's  bookstore. 


256  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


THE  PRONOUN. 


Definition.  —  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun. 

The  word,  phrase,  or  clause  for  which  a  pronoun  stands 
is  called  its  antecedent. 

Pronouns  have  the  modifications  of  nouns  —  number, 
gender,  person,  and  case. 

Classes. 

Those  that  by  their  form  denote  the  speaker,  the  one 
spoken  to,  and  the  one  spoken  of  are  called  personal  pro- 
nouns—  -T,  of  the  first  person  ;  thou  and  you,  of  the  second 
person ;  and  he,  she,  and  it,  of  the  third  person. 

Those  used  in  asking  questions  are  called  interrogative 
pronouns  —  who,  which,  and  what. 

Those  that  refer  to  some  word  or  words  in  another 
clause  and  so  connect  clauses  are  called  relative  pronouns 
—  who,  which,  what,  and  that. 

Those  used  as  adjectives  and  nouns  —  all,  some,  both, 
many,  etc.  — are  called  adjective  pronouns. 

Definitions. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  one  that  by  its  form  denotes  the 
speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of. 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  with  which  a  question 
is  asked. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  refers  to  some  word  or 
words  in  another  clause  and  connects  clauses. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  257 


An  adjective  pronoun  is  one  that  performs  the  offices  of 
an  adjective  and  a  noun. 

On  pp.  186-188,  we  see  (1)  that  personal,  interrogative, 
and  relative  pronouns  do  not  add  s  to  form  the  plural ; 
(2)  that  no  personal  pronoun,  except  you,  forms  its  plural 
from  the  singular  ;  (3)  that  no  personal,  interrogative,  or 
•  relative  pronoun  has  the  apostrophe  and  sin  the  possess- 
ive singular  or  the  -apostrophe  in  the  possessive  plural ; 
(4)  that  every  personal  pronoun  has  two  forms  in  the 
possessive  plural,  and  that  all  but  he  and  it  have  two 
forms  in  the  possessive  singular  ;  (5)  that  he  is  always 
masculine,  she  feminine,  and  it  neuter,  and  that  /,  you, 
and  thou  are  of  any  gender ;  (6)  that  he,  she,  and  it  have 
the  same  plural,  and  therefore  they,  their,  and  them  are  of 
any  gender  ;  (7)  that  self  added  to  the  possessives  my, 
thy,  and  your,  and  to  the  objectives  him,  her,  or  it,  makes 
our  compound  personal  pronouns  in  the  singular  ;  (8)  that 
selves  added  to  our  and  your  and  to  them  makes  the  same 
pronouns  in  the  plural ;  (9)  that  who  and  which  have  their 
plurals  like  the  singular  ;  (10)  that  what  and  that  are 
indeclinable  ;  (11)  that  whose  is  the  possessive  of  the 
interrogative  and  the  relative  who  and  which  ;  (12)  that, 
excepting  that,  the  relatives  and  the  interrogatives  are  the 
same  ;  (13)  that  ever  and  soever  added  to  who,  which,  and 
what  form  our  compound  relative  pronouns ;  (14)  that  the 
relative  who  represents  persons ;  which,  animals  and  things ; 
that,  persons,   animals,   and   things  ;    and   what,  things ; 


258  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


and  (15)  that  the  only  nominative  and  objective  forms 
in  English  —  eight  of  one  and  seven  of  the  other  —  are  in 
the  declensions  of  these  three  classes  of  pronouns. 

Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  number,  gen- 
der, and  case. 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

Definition.  —  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify 
a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Good  men ;  six  marbles  ;  much  land  j  this  book. 
Good  denotes  quality  ;  six,  number ;  much,  quantity ;  and  this, 
the  relation  of  the  book  to  the  speaker. 

Classes  of  Adjectives. 
Definitions. 

A  descriptive  adjective  is  one  that  modifies  by  express^ 
ing  quality. 

A  definitive  adjective  is  one  that  modifies  by  pointing 
out,  numbering,  or  denoting  quantity. 

In  "  A  wise,  capable,  and  influential  teacher  is  simple  and 
unaffected  in  speech  and  in  bearing,''  we  see  that  adjec- 
tives (1)  may  be  assumed,  and  (2)  may  be  asserted  — 
standing  in  the  predicate  as  attribute  complements.  We 
see  (3)  their  punctuation,  and  (4)  in  what  order  they  stand 
when  of  different  length. 

In  "  A  wise  man  is  respected,"  we  may  for  the  adjective  tvise  sub- 
stitute (5)  the  equivalent  phrase  of  ivisdom  or  (6)  the  equivalent 
clause  who  is  wise,  and  thus  secure  variety  of  expression. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  259 


Care  is  needed  in  selecting  apt  adjectives,  and  in  guarding  against 
an  excessive  use  of  them. 

Comparison. 

Adjectives  have  one  modification  —  comparison  —  seen  in 
lovely,  lovelier,  loveliest ;  lovely,  more  lovely,  most  lovely  ; 
lovely,  less  lovely,  least  lovely.  The  terminations  er  and 
est  and  the  prefixed  adverbs  more  and  most  denote  increase 
of  the  quality  ;  the  prefixed  adverbs  less  and  least  denote 

diminution. 

Definitions. 

Comparison  is  a  modification  of  the  adjective  to  express 
the  relative  degree  of  the  quality  in  the  things  compared. 

The  positive  degree  expresses  the  simple  quality. 

The  comparative  degree  expresses  a  greater  or  a  less 
degree  of  the-  quality. 

The  superlative  degree  expresses  the  greatest  or  the 
least  degree  of  the  quality. 

If  we  suppose  that  in  comparing  we  express  increase  oftener  tlian 
decrease,  and  increase  oftener  by  er  and  est  than  by  more  and  most, 
we  have  the 

Rule.  —  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding 
er  to  the  positive  to  form  the  comparative,  and  est  to  the 
positive  to  form  the  superlative. 

THE   ADVERB. 

Definition. — An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 


260  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


Classes  of  Adverbs. 

Those  that  answer  the  question,  When?  are  adverbs  of 
time. 

Those  that  answer  the  question,  Where?  are  adverbs  of 
place. 

Those  that  answer  the  question,  To  what  extent?  are 
adverbs  of  degree. 

Those  that  answer  the  question,  In  what  way?  are 
adverbs  of  manner. 

Adverbs  that  connect  clauses  and  modify  words  in  them 
are  called  conjunctive  adverbs. 

In  " We  started  then"  we  may  substitute  for  the  adverb  then  the 
phrase  at  that  time  or  the  clause  when  the  time  came. 

Adverbs,  then,  may  be  expanded  into  equivalent  phrases  and  clauses, 
and  such  phrases  and  clauses  may  be  contracted  into  equivalent  adverbs. 

Adverbs,  like  adjectives,  are  compared.  For  the  lists 
of  adjectives  and  adverbs  compared  irregularly,  see  Les- 
sons 87  and  88:  In  these  lists  it  is  seen  that  more  and 
most,  less  and  least,  used  in  comparing  adjectives  and 
adverbs,  are  themselves  comparatives  and  superlatives  in 
er  and  est  slightly  disguised  —  see  "  Higher  Lessons," 
Revised  Edition,  p.  259,  foot-note. 

Care  is  needed  in  the  choice  of  adverbs,  and  in  placing  them  and 
adverbial  phrases  where  they  belong. 

THE   VERB. 

Definition.  —  A  verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  action, 
being,  or  state  of  being. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  261 


It  asserts,  whether  the  sentence  affirms,  denies,  or  ques- 
tions. 

Classes  of  Verbs. 

The  boy  caught  a  fish ;  Fish  swim.  Caught  needs  an  object  com- 
plement, as  fish,  to  make  a  complete  assertion  \  swim  does  not. 
Caught  and  all  verbs  that  denote  an  act  as  going  over  from  a  doer  to 
a  receiver  are  transitive ;  swim  and  all  verbs  that  do  not  require  a 
word  to  complete  the  assertion  are  intransitive. 

Definitions. 

A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  requires  an  object. 
An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  does  not  require  an 
object. 

I  crush  the  worm ;  I  crushed  the  worm ;  The  worm  crushed  by 
me  died. 

I  drive  the  horses ;  I  drove  the  horses ;  The  horses  driven  by  me 
ran  away. 

The  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  crushed  is  formed  by  adding 
ed  to  the  present  crush;  the  past  tense  drove  is  formed  by  vowel- 
change  of  the  present  drive ;  and  the  past  participle  is  formed  by 
adding  en.  Crush  and  verbs  like  it  are  regular ; l  drive  and  those 
like  it  are  irregular.1 

Definitions. 

A  regular  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past  tense  and  past 
participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  past  tense 
and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

1  For  another  classification,  see  Lesson  74,  foot-note. 


262  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


Verbs  have  the  modifications  called  voice,  mode,  tense., 
number,  and  person. 

Voice. 

I  drove  the  horses ;  The  horses  ivere  driven  by  me. 

Drove  shows  that  the  subject  denotes  the  actor;  were  driven 
shows  that  the  subject  names  the  ones  acted  upon.  These  uses  of  the 
verb  constitute  the  modification  called  voice  :  drove  is  in  the  active 
voice,  and  were  driven  is  in  the  passive. 

Definitions. 

Voice  is  that  modification  of  the  transitive  verb  which 
shows  whether  the  subject  names  the  actor  or  the  thing 
acted  upon. 

The  active  voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  actor. 

The  passive  voice  shows  that   the    subject   names   the 

thing  acted  upon. 

Mode. 

James  walks;  James  may  walk;  If  James  walk  out,  he  will 
improve ;  James,  walk  on. 

Here  the  action  is  asserted  (1)  as  a  fact,  (2)  as  possible,  (3)  as  con- 
ceivable, and  (4)  as  a  command  ;  and  these  ways  of  asserting  give  us 
the  four  modes — indicative,  potential,  subjunctive,  and  imperative. 
Lesson  90,  foot-note. 

Definitions. 

Mode  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  denotes  the 
manner  of  asserting  the  action  or  being. 

The  indicative  mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  fact. 

The  potential  mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  possibility, 
or  necessity  of  acting  or  being. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  263 


The  subjunctive  mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a 
mere  supposition,  conception,  or  wish. 

The  imperative  mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a 
command  or  an  entreaty. 

Tense. 

I  walk;  I  walked;  I  shall  walk;  I  have  walked;  I  had  walked; 
I  shall  have  walked. 

In  the  first  three  sentences,  the  action  is  asserted  as  taking  place 

in  time  (1)  present,  (2)  past,  and  (3)  future ;  in  the  last  three  it  is 

asserted  as  finished  or  completed  in  time  (4)  present,  (5)  past,  and 

(6)  future. 

Definitions. 

Tense  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  expresses 
the  time  of  the  action  or  being. 

The  present  tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  present. 

The  past  tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  past. 

The  future  tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  yet  to 
come. 

The  present  perfect  tense  expresses  action  or  being  as 
completed  at  the  present  time. 

The  past  perfect  tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time. 

The  future  perfect  tense  expresses  action  or  being  to  be 
completed  at  some  future  time. 

Person  and  Number. 

I  walk  ;  Thou  walkest ;  He  walks  j  They  walk.  Walk  adds  the 
ending  est  and  s  in  the  second  and  third  sentences  to  make  the  verb 


264  Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


agree  in  person  with  the  subjects  thou  and  he;  adds  s  in  the  third 
sentence  and  omits  it  in  the  first  and  the  fourth  to  make  the  verb 
agree  in  number  with  its  subjects  he,  7,  and  they. 

Definition. — Number  and  person  of  a  verb  are  those 
modifications  that  show  its  agreement  with  the  number 
and  person  of  its  subject. 

The  infinitive  and  the  participle  are  forms  of  the  verb 
that  do  not  assert. 

The  infinitive  is  ordinarily  found  with  the  preposition  toy 
and  forms  with  it  the  infinitive  phrase  —  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive, an  adverb,  or  a  noun. 

The  participle  has  an  adjective  or  a  noun1  nature  plus 
its  constant  verb  nature. 

Definitions. 

The  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  which  names  the 
action  or  being  in  a  general  way,  without  asserting  it  of 
anything. 

The  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  an  adjective  or  of  a  noun,1  and  expressing  the 
action  or  being  as  assumed. 

The  present  participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  con- 
tinuing at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

The  past  participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  past  or 
completed  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

1When  it  has  a  noun  nature  it  may  be  called  a  nounal  verb.  See 
Lesson  98. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons.  265 


The  past  perfect  participle  denotes  action  or  being  as 
completed  at  a  time  previous  to  that  indicated  by  the 
predicate. 

Conjugation  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  all  the  forms 
of  the  verb. 

Synopsis  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  the  forms  of  one 
number  and  person  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present  indica- 
tive or  infinitive,  the  past  indicative,  and  the  past 
participle. 

Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  that  help  in  the  conjugation 
of  other  verbs. 

The  auxiliaries  are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  and 
must 

Defective  verbs  are  those  verbs  some  of  whose  parts  are 
wanting  —  can,  may,  must,  ought,  shall,  and  will. 

For  the  Review  of  the  conjugation  of  verbs  —  simple  form, 
emphatic  form,  progressive  form,  and  passive  form  —  see  Lessons 
92,  93,  and  94. 

THE   PREPOSITION. 

Definition. — A  preposition  is  a  word  that  introduces 
a  phrase  modifier,  and  shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its 
principal  word  to  the  word  modified. 

Such  phrase  modifiers  have  the  force  of  adjectives  or  adverbs. 
Care  is  needed  in  choosing  the  right  preposition,  and  in  placing  the 
prepositional  phrase  where  it  belongs. 


266  Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


THE   CONJUNCTION. 


Definition.  —  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

Relative  pronouns  and  conjunctive  adverbs  and  prepositions  also 
connect,  but  the  conjunction  is  the  only  part  of  speech  which  simply 
connects. 

Definitions. 

Coordinate  conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  of  the  same  rank. 

Subordinate  conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  clauses  of 
different  rank. 

THE   INTERJECTION. 

Definition.  —  An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express 
strong  or  sudden  feeling. 

Interjections  are  without  grammatical  relation  to  any 
word  in  the  sentence. 

For  a  Review  of  the  paragraph,  of  paragraphs  forming  a  theme ;  of 
general  topic,  sub -topic,  framework,  matter,  and  style ;  and  of 
descriptive,  narrative,  and  persuasive  writing,  see  Lessons  30,  40, 
50,  60,  70,  and  77. 

For  a  Summary  of  the  rules  for  capital  letters  and  punctuation, 
and  for  illustrative  examples,  see  pp.  224-229. 

For  letter-writing  under  heading,  introduction,  body  of  the 
letter,  conclusion,  folding,  and  superscription,  see  pp.  229-243. 

For  a  Summary  of  the  rules  of  syntax,  see  p.  244. 

For  the  ordinary  proof- marks,  see  pp.  245,  246. 

For  schemes  for  review,  see  pp.  267-270. 

For  abbreviations,  see  pp.  272-277. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons. 


267 


SCHEMES  FOR  REVIEW- 

These  Schemes  will  be  found  very  helpful  in  a  general  review.  The 

pupils  should  be  able  to  reproduce  them,  omitting  the  Lesson  nunix 

bers. 

SCHEME   FOR   THE   SENTENCE. 

{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 

f  Noun  or  Pronoun  (6,  14,  19). 
Subject.  J    Phrase  (49). 

[  Clause  (61). 
Predicate.  Verb  (6,  16). 

f  {  Noun  or  Pronoun  (39). 

Object.         j    Phrase  (49). 
(   Clause  (61). 
Complements.  f  Adjective  (39). 

Noun  or  Pronoun  (42). 
Phrase  (49). 
;   Clause  (61). 
Adjectives  (20,  22). 
Adverbs  (24,  27). 
Participles  (48). 
Nouns  and  Pronouns  (53). 
Phrases  (31,  48,  49). 
Clauses  (57,  59). 
Conjunctions  (35,  36,  62). 
Pronouns  (57). 
[  Adverbs  (59). 
Independent  Parts  (36,  64). 
Classes  —  Meaning.  —  Declarative,  Interrogative,  Imperative,  Ex- 
clamatory (63). 
Classes — Form.  —  Simple,  Complex,  Compound  (57,  62). 


Attribute. 


Modifiers. 


Connectives. 


268 


Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


SCHEME   FOR   THE   NOUN. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 


NOUN  (14). 


Uses. 


Classes. 


Modifications. 


'  Subject  (6). 
Object  Complement  (39). 
Objective  Complement  (82). 
Attribute  Complement  (42 
Adjective  Modifier  (53). 
Prin.  word  in  Prep.  Phrase  (34). 
Independent  (64). 
|  Common  (71). 
[  Proper  (71). 

'  Singular  (78,  79). 
Plural  (78,  79). 
f  Masculine  1 
Gender.   J  Feminine    I  (80). 
[  Neuter      j 
First 
Person.    •  Second  ■  (81-83). 
Third 
f  Nominative  1 
Case.      \  Possessive     [  (81-85). 
[  Objective     J 


Number. 


PRONOUNS.  \ 


SCHEME  FOR   THE   PRONOUN. 

Uses.  —  Same  as  those  of  the  Noun, 
f  Personal 

Relative 

Interrogative 

Adjective 
Modifications.  —  Same  as  those  of  the  Noun. 


Classes. 


(71,  72). 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons. 


269 


SCHEME   FOR   THE   VERB. 

(The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 


f 


Uses. 


To  assert  action,  being,  or  state  —  Predicate  (6, 16} 

*•      v  •  w     f  Participles  (48). 

To  assume  action,  being,  or  state.  j  j^^  (v49); 


Classes. 


Form. 


Meaning:. 


Modifications,  j  Tense. 


Voice. 


Modo. 


f  Regular  (74). 
[irregular  (74,  91). 

[  Transitive  (74). 
Intransitive  (74). 

(  Active  (89). 
{  Passive  (89). 

r  Indicative     1 
I  Potential 
I  Subjunctive 
I  Imperative   J 

Present 
Past 
Future 

Present  Perfect 
Past  Perfect 
»  Future  Perfect 


(90-94), 


(90-94). 


Participles.  — 


** *    {Sallar}^92-95)' 

f  First     ' 
Person,     j  Second     (90,  92-95). 
[Third    . 

f"Pvpcpr>t  I 

Past  (90-94,  96,  98) 

I  Past  Perfect  J 


Infinitives.  —       Tenses. 


J  Present 

1  Present  Perfect 


|  (90,  92-94). 


270 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


SCHEME   FOR   THE   ADJECTIVE. 

(The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 


ADJECTIVE.  i 


Uses. 


|  Modifier  (20,  22). 

[  Attribute  Complement  (39). 


Classes. 


J  Descriptive  (73). 
{  Definitive  (73). 

[  Pos.    Deg.  ] 
Modification.  —  Comparison,  j  Comp.    "     [(87,  88). 

[Sup.      «    J 


ADVERB. 


SCHEME   FOR   THE   ADVERB. 


Classes. 


f  Time 
Place 
Degree 
Manner 


(75). 


[  Pos.    Deg. 
Modification. — Comparison, -I  Comp.    " 

I  Sup.       " 


(87,  88). 


SCHEME   FOR   THE    CONJ.,    PREP.,    AND    INT. 

THE  CONJUNCTION.- Classes.  (Coordinate    1    (36, ,76).    N. 

I  Subordinate  J    Modifications. 

THE  PREPOSITION  (34,  41).  —  No  Classes.     No  Modifications. 
THE  INTERJECTION  (36).  —  No  Classes.     No  Modifications. 


Review  of  Graded  Lessons. 


271 


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272 


Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

Remarks.  —  Few  abbreviations  are  allowable  in  ordinary  compo- 
sition. They  are  very  convenient  in  writing  lists  of  articles,  in  scien- 
tific works,  and  wherever  certain  terms  occur  frequently. 

Titles  prefixed  to  proper  names  are  generally  abbreviated,  except 
in  addressing  an  officer  of  high  rank.  Titles  that  immediately  follow 
names  are  almost  always  abbreviated. 

Names  of  women  are  not  generally  abbreviated,  except  by  using 
an  initial  for  one  of  two  Christian  names. 

Abbreviations  that  shorten  only  by  one  letter  are  unnecessary ;  as, 
Jul.  for  "  July,"  Jno.  for  "  John,"  da.  for  "  day,"  etc. 

1st,  2d,  3d,  4th,  etc.  are  not  followed  by  the  period.  They  are 
not  treated  as  abbreviations. 


@,  At. 

A.B.    or  B.A.    (Artium  Bacca- 

laureus),  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Acct.,  acct.,  or  %,  Account. 
A.D.,    (Anno  Domini),    In   the 

year  of  our  Lord. 
Adjt.,  Adjutant. 
-Sit.    or    aet.    (oztatis),    Of   age, 

aged. 
Ala.,  Alabama. 
Alex.,  Alexander. 
A.M.  or  M.A.  (Artium  Magis- 

ter),  Master  of  Arts. 
A.M.  or  a.m.   (ante    meridiem), 

Before  noon. 
Amt.,  Amount. 
And.,  Andrew. 


Anon.,  Anonymous. 

Ans.,  Answer. 

Anth.,  Anthony. 

Apr.,  April. 

Arch.,  Archibald. 

Ark.,  Arkansas. 

Ariz.,  Arizona. 

Atty.,  Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen.,  Attorney-General. 

Aug.,  August;  Augustus. 

Av.  or  Ave.,  Avenue. 

Avoir.,  Avoirdupois. 

Bart.,  Baronet. 

bbl.,  Barrels. 

B.C.,  Before  Christ. 

Benj.,  Benjamin. 

Brig.-Gen.,  Brigadier-General. 


Abbreviations. 


273 


B.S.,  Bachelor  of  Science. 

bu.,  Bushel. 

$  or  ct.,  Cents. 

Cal.,  California. 

Cap.,  Capital.     Caps.,  Capitals. 

Capt.,  Captain. 

C.E.,  Civil  Engineer. 

cf.  (confer),  Compare. 

Chas.,  Charles. 

Chron.,  Chronicles. 

Co.,  Company;  County. 

c/o,  In  care  of. 

C.O.D.,  Collect  on  delivery. 

Col.,  Colonel;  Colossians. 

Coll.,  College;  Collector. 

Conn.,  Connecticut. 

Cor.,  Corinthians. 

Cr.,  Credit ;  Creditor. 

cub.  ft.,  Cubic  feet. 

cub.  in.,  Cubic  inches. 

cwt.,  Hundredweight. 

d.,  Days ;  Pence. 

Danl.  or  Dan.,  Daniel. 

D.C.,  District  of  Columbia. 

D.C.L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.D.  (Divinitatis  Doctor) ,  Doc- 
tor of  Divinity. 

D.D.S.,  Doctor  of  Dental  Sur- 
gery. 

Dec,  December. 

Del.,  Delaware. 


Deut.,  Deuteronomy. 

D.G.  (Dei  gratia),  By  the  grace 
of  God. 

Dist.-Atty.,  District- Attorney. 

D.M.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

do.  (ditto),  The  same. 

doz.,  Dozen. 

Dr.,  Doctor;  Debtor. 

D.V.  (Deo  volente),  God  will- 
ing. 

E.,  East. 

Eben.,  Ebenezer. 

Eccl.,  Ecclesiastes. 

Ed.,  Edition;  Editor. 

Edm.,  Edmund. 

Edw.,  Edward. 

e.g.  (exempli  gratia),  For  exam- 
ple. 

E.N.E.,  East-northeast. 

Eng.,  English ;  England. 

Eph.,  Ephesians ;  Ephrainu 

E.S.E.,  East-southeast. 

Esq.,  Esquire. 

et  al.  (et  alibi),  And  elsewhere. 

et  al.  (et  alii),  And  others. 

et  seq.  (et  sequentia),  And  follow- 
ing. 

etc.  of  &c.  (et  cmtera),  And 
others  ;  And  so  forth. 

Ex.,  Example ;  Exodus. 

Ez.,  Ezra. 


274 


Graded  Lessons  In  English. 


Ezek.,  Ezekiel. 

Fahr.  or  P.,  Fahrenheit  (ther- 
mometer). 

Teh.,  February. 

Fla.,  Florida. 

Fr.,  French ;  France. 

Fran.,  Francis. 

Fred.,  Frederic. 

Fri.,  Friday. 

ft.,  Feet. 

Ft.,  Fort. 

fur.,  Furlong. 

<3a.,  Georgia. 

Gal.,  Galatians. 

gal.,  Gallons. 

Gen.,  General;  Genesis. 

Geo.,  George. 

Gov.,  Governor. 

gr.,  Grains. 

h.,  Hours. 

Hab.,  Habakkuk. 

Hag.,  Haggai. 

H.B.M.,  His  (or  Her)  Britannic 
Majesty. 

hdkf.,  Handkerchief. 

Heb.,  Hebrews. 

H.H.,  His  Holiness  (the  Pope). 

hhd.,  Hogsheads. 

H.M.,  His  (or  Her)  Majesty. 

Hon.,  Honorable. 

Hos.,  Hosea. 


H.R.H.,  His  (or  Her)  Royal  High- 
ness. 

ib.  or  ibid,  (ibidem),  In  the  same 
place. 

id.  (idem),  The  same. 

i.e.  (id  est),  That  is. 

I.H.S.  (Jesus  liominum  Salva- 
tor),  Jesus  the  Savior  of  Men. 

111.,  Illinois. 

in.,  Inches. 

incog,  (incognito),  Unknown. 

Ind.,  Indiana. 

Ind.  T.,  Indian  Territory. 

inst.,  Instant,  the  present  month. 

Io.,  Iowa. 

I.O.O.F.,  Independent  Order  -of 
Odd  Fellows. 

Isa.,  Isaiah. 

Jac,  Jacob. 

Jan.,  January. 

Jas.,  James. 

Jer.,  Jeremiah. 

Jona.,  Jonathan. 

Jos.,  Joseph. 

Josh.,  Joshua. 

Jr.  or  Jun.,  Junior. 

Judg.,  Judges. 

Kans.  or  Kan.,  Kansas. 

Ky.,  Kentucky. 

L.,  Latin. 

t,  Line :  11..  Lines. 


Abbreviations. 


275 


1.  or  £,  Pounds  sterling. 

La.,  Louisiana. 

Lam.,  Lamentations. 

lb.  or  lb.  (libra  or  librce),  Pound 

or  pounds  in  weight. 
La,  Lower  case  (small  letter). 
Lev.,  Leviticus. 
L.I.,  Long  Island. 
Lieut.,  Lieutenant. 
LL.B.    (Legum    Baccalaureus), 

Bachelor  of  Laws. 
LL.D.   {Legum  Doctor),   Doctor 

of  Laws. 
M.  or  Mons.,  Monsieur. 
M.  (meridies),  Noon. 
m.,  Miles ;  Minutes. 
Mad.,  Madam.     Mme.,  Madame. 
Maj.,  Major. 
Mai.,  Malachi. 
Mar.,  March. 
Mass.,  Massachusetts. 
Matt.,  Matthew. 
M.C.,  Member  of  Congress. 
M.D.  (Medicinal  Doctor),  Doctor 

of  Medicine. 
Md.,  Maryland. 
mdse.,  Merchandise. 
Me.,  Maine. 

Mem., Memorandum;  Memoranda. 
Messrs.,  Messieurs. 
Mgr.,  Monseigneur. 


Mia,  Micah. 

Mich.,  Michigan  ;  Michael. 

Minn.,  Minnesota. 

Miss.,  Mississippi. 

Mile.,  Mademoiselle. 

Mmes.  Mesdames. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

mo.,  Months. 

Mon.,  Monday. 

M.P.,  Member  of  Parliament. 

Mont.,  Montana. 

Mr.,  Mister. 

Mrs.,  Mistress  (pronounced  Missis). 

MS.,  Manuscript. 

MSS.,  Manuscripts. 

Mt.,  Mountain. 

N.,  North. 

N.A.,  North  America. 

Nath.,  Nathaniel. 

N.B.  (nota  bene),  Mark  welL 

N.C.,  North  Carolina. 

N.Dak.,  North  Dakota. 

N.E.,  New  England. 

N.E.,  Northeast. 

Neh.,  Nehemiah. 

Neth.,  Netherlands. 

Nev.,  Nevada. 

N.H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.J.,  New  Jersey. 

N.Mex.  or  N.M.,  New  Mexico. 

N.N.E.,  North-northeast, 


276 


Graded  Lessons  in  English. 


N.N.W.,  North-northwest. 

N.O.,  New  Orleans. 

No.  (numero),  Number. 

Nov.,  November. 

N.W.,  Northwest. 

N.Y.,  New  York. 

O.,  Ohio. 

Obad.,  Obadiah. 

Oct.,  October. 

Oreg.  or  Or.,  Oregon. 

Oxon.  (Oxonia),  Oxford. 

oz.,  Ounces. 

p.,  Page,     pp.,  Pages. 

Pa.  or  Penn.,  Pennsylvania. 

Payt.  or  payt.,  Payment. 

per  cent  or  per  ct.  or  %  (per 
centum),  By  the  hundred. 

Ph.D.  (Philosophic^  Doctor),  Doc- 
tor of  Philosophy. 

Phil.,  Philip ;  Philippians. 

Phila.,  Philadelphia. 

pk.,  Pecks. 

P.M.,  Postmaster. 

P.M.  or  p.m.  (post  meridiem), 
Afternoon. 

P.O.,  Post  Office. 

Pres.,  President. 

Prof.,  Professor. 

Pro  tern,  (pro  tempore),  For  the 
time  being. 

Prov.,  Proverbs. 


prox.      (proximo),      The      next 

month. 
P.S.,  Postscript. 
Ps.,  Psalms. 
pt.,  Pints. 

pwt.,  Pennyweights. 
qt.,  Quarts. 

q.v.  (quod  vide),  Which  see. 
Qy.,  Query. 
rd.,  Rods. 
Reed.,  Received. 
Rev.,  Reverend;  Revelation. 
R.I.,  Rhode  Island. 
Robt.,  Robert. 
Rom.,  Romans  (Book  of) ;  Roman 

letters. 
R.R.,  Railroad. 
R.S.V.P.    (Repondez    s'il    vous 

plait),  Answer,  if  you  please. 
Rt.  Hon.,  Right  Honorable. 
Rt.  Rev.,  Right  Reverend. 
S.,  South, 
s.,  Shillings. 
S.A.,  South  America. 
Saml.  or  Bam.,  Samuel. 
Sat.,  Saturday. 
S.C.,  South  Carolina. 
S.  Dak.,  South  Dakota. 
S.E.,  Southeast. 
Sec,  Secretary. 
sec,  seconds. 


Abbreviations. 


277 


Sep.  or  Sept.,  September. 

Sol.,  Solomon. 

sq.  ft.,  Square  feet. 

sq.  in.,  Square  inches. 

sq.  m.,  Square  miles. 

S.S.E.,  South-southeast. 

S.S.W.,  South-southwest. 

St.,  Street;  Saint. 

Sun.,  Sunday. 

Supt.,  Superintendent. 

S.W.,  Southwest. 

T.,  Tons ;  Tuns. 

Tenn.,  Tennessee. 

Tex.,  Texas. 

Theo.,  Theodore. 

Theoph.,  Theophilus. 

Thess.,  Thessalonians. 

Thos.,  Thomas. 

Thurs.,  Thursday. 

Tim.,  Timothy. 

tr.,  Transpose. 

Treas.,  Treasurer. 

Tues.,  Tuesday. 

nit.  (ultimo),  Last  —  last  month. 

U.S.   or  U.S.A.,    United    States 


of  America;   United   States 

Army. 
U.S.M.,  United  States  Mail. 
U.S.N.,  United  States  Navy. 
Va.,  Virginia. 
Vice  Fres.,  Vice-President. 
viz.  (videlicet),  To  wit,  namely 
vol.,  Volume, 
vs.  (versus),  Against. 
Vt.,  Vermont. 
W.,  West. 
Wed.,  Wednesday. 
w.f.,  Wrong  font. 
Wis.,  Wisconsin, 
wk.,  Weeks. 
Wm.,  William. 
W.N.W.,  West-northwest 
W.S.W.,  West-southwest, 
W.  Va.,  West  Virginia. 
Wyo.,  Wyoming. 
Xmas,  Christmas. 
yd.,  Yards. 
y.  or  yr.,  Years. 
Zech.,  Zechariah. 
&  Co.,  And  Company. 


INDEX. 


Adjectives, 


PAGE 

Abbreviations 77,  78,  272-277 

'  abuse  of 43,  44 

an  and  a 42 

arrangement  of 52,  53 

choice  of 41-44,  54,  55 

classes  of 161,162 

comparison  of 192-196 

definition  of 39,161 

distinguished  from  adverbs. 83, 84 

effect  upon  style 41 

11  scheme  "  for  review 270 

r  arrangement  of 82-84,  113 

classes  of 166 

comparison  of 194-196 

conjunctive 167.  169.  170 

definition  of  .   49 

distinguished    from    adjec- 
tives  83.  84 

1  scheme  "  for  review 270 

.use  of 48-52 

, 18,  22,  74-76 

Analysis,  oral.. 26,  31,  35,  45,  47,  49,  63,  68,  71, 
73,  82,  104,  106.  116,  126.  130,  137,  140 

Antecedent 160 

Argument 123 

Arrangement 90-94 

Articles 38,  42 

Auxiliary  Verbs  — 201 

Be 209-212 

Oapital  Letters,  rules.  19, 27,  31, 77, 162, 224,  225 

r  arrangement  of 130-132 

definition  of 125 

r  adjective     ....124-12S 
dependent,  I  adverb...   ....129-132 

I  noun    136-139 

I  independent 125, 140, 141 


Adverbs, 


Agreement 


Clauses, 


Colon  . . 
Comma. 


r  attribute. 


PACK 

189.  "227 

76,  77,  118.  127,  226 
80,  81,95,  112 


Diagrams, 


Comple-    f   . 

menfa,       ob]ect 80' 81 

l.  objective 183,  184 

Composition ia 

Conjugation '201 

Conjunc-  j  classes  of 167 

tions,      |  definition  of 72,  168 

Connectives,  list  of 169.  170 

Contraction  — 148-151 

definition n 

use  of 5.  6 

Expansion 148-151 

Exposition 145,146 

Figurative  Expressions 154 

Framework 89,  118,  124 

Grammar,  English 12 

Indirect  Object 185 

Infinitive  Phrase 105-107 

Interjections 72.  78 

Interrogation  Point  .  142,  225 

(firsthand 59.60 

knowledge. -j  sccond  hMd mM 

f  natural 12 

Language,   \  talk  on 9-14 

t  verbal    ...   12 

11,  12 

1  surds 11,  12 

voweh    11,  12 

what ....9-12 

Letter  Writing 229-248 

Modifications 1 76. 177 


Letters, 


f  i  sonants. . 

consonants,  - 


279 


280 


Graded   Lessons  in  English. 


Modifier, 


Nouns, 


Object  • 


PAGE 

a 34 

adjective 38-44 

adverb.   44-52 

clause 118,  119,  124,  132 

noun 115,  116,  118 

I  phrase..... 61-69,  118,119 

Modified  Predicate 44,  45 

Modified  Subject 33,  34 

Negatives 94 

Nominative  Forms 190 

Nounal  Verb 219  (note) 

f  classes  of 157,  158 

declension  of 185 

definition  of 25,  26 

f  case....  182,  185,188-190 

modifica-  I  gender 178.  179 

tions  of    |  number  ..74,  75,  175-178 

t  person .180-182 

modifiers,  as 115,  116,  185 

;  scheme  "  for  review 269 

[  ten  offices  of 251 

....164  (note) 

Objective  Forms  190 

Objects  writers  have 153,  154 

Order,  usual  and  transposed 69,  90-94 

'  composition  of. . .  .55-60,  87,  89, 
108-113,  155,  156,  173,  174 

definition  of. 55,  56,  58,  156 

framework  for 89,  113,  124 

'  descriptive.  .108- 

113,171-173 

explanatory..  56- 

60 

narrative..  85-89, 

133-135 

persuasive.. 133- 

135,  152-154 

length  of. 124 

material  for 59,  60 

order  of  89,  173 

relation  of     .58,  59,  88,  89 

topics  and  sub-topics  of.  .89. 124 
Parsing .  .26, 29, 31, 39. 73, 106, 130, 192,  218, 271 


Paragraphs, 


kinds  of, 
illustrated, 


Participle 102-105 

Parts  of  Speech .    25 

Period 19,  77,  225 

arrangement  76,  77,  90-94 

change  of. 66,  67 

complex 101 

compound 101 

definition 62 

Phrases,      \  discussion  of. 60-62 

infinitive 105-107 

participial 107,  108 

position  of 90, 92 

prepositional 60-64 

transposed 90,  91 

Possessive  Forms 1SS-190 

Predicate  ...15-24,  27-29,  36,  44,  45,  70,  79.  81 

Prepositions 67,  68,  94 

agreement  of 76,  191 

classes  of 158,  159,  187,  18a 

declension  of. 186-188 

definition  of 31,  159 

discussion  of. 30-32 

Pronouns,    ■{  Tease..   .180-185,190 

modifica-  J  gender 178,  179 

tions  of  I  number 187-189 

[person 180-185 

modifiers,  as 115-117,  184 

"  scheme  "  for  review 268 

Proof-Marks 245,  246 

'  colon 139,  227 

comma 76,  77.  118,  127,  226 

exclamation  point 78,  225 

(explanation  of  restrictive). . 
Punctua-  118,  119 

tion,  -  interrogation  point 142,  225 

Rules  for,       period 19,  77,  225 

quotation  marks  .  ..135.  138.  139 

semicolon 134.  153.  227 

summary    of   rules    for    all 

points .225-2291 

(  direct 138,  13& 

<*notatwM>  1  indireet 188,1* 


Index. 


281 


PAGE 

r  adjectives 258,  259 

adverbs ,  .259,  260 

conjunctions 266 

Review  of       interjections 266 

Graded      \  nouns 251-255 

Lessons,        prepositions  .'. 265 

pronouns .256-258 

sentences 247-251 

>  verbs 260-265 

Review  Questions. .  .15,  21.  27,  36,  37,  47,  48,  55,. 
71,  84,  108,  132,  133,  150-152, 170, 
171,  179,  180,  191,  195,  196,  218 

See  203-205 

S-Ending 18-20.  22,  32,  36,  74,  75,  120 

'  analysis  of 16,  17 

definition  of  14 

diagram  of J6,  17 

parts  of . 15 

predicate  of. . .  16,  21,  29,  45,  70, 
79-82 

study  of 1-5 

L  subject  of. 16,  17,  26.  70 

r  complex 126-132 

form,   i  compound 140,  141 

I  simple 126 

{declarative 141,  142 
exclamatory 141,  142 
imperative 141,  142 
interrogative  .24,141,142 

Sounds 9-12 

Subject.  .15-24,  26,  32,  35,  70,  106,  107,  136,  137 
Synopsis 201 


Sentences, 


Sentences 

(classes). 


Verbs, 


Syntax,  rules  of 244 

Synthesis 18 

Theme 124 

To,  with  infinitive 105,  106,  113 

agreement  of. . .  17-20,  22,  32,  36, 

74-76,  213-215 

intransitive .  162-164 

irregular...  164,  165, 

201,  202 

classes,     -j  regular 163-165 

strong..  ..164  (note) 
transitive...  162-164 

L  weak 164  (note) 

form 163-165 

meaning ....  162-164 

conjugation  of 201-212 

definition  of  ..  •   28 

emphatic  form 206 

infinitive,  the 105,  200 

mode 198-200 

number'.  ...199,  200 

person 199,  200 

tense 198,  200 

voice 196,  197 

participle 102-105,  200, 

219  (note),  220 
participle  distinguished  from 

predicate 215-218 

passive  form 212 

principal  parts 201 

progressive  form 212 

"  scheme ''  for  review 269 

160 


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modifica- 
tions of 


What  . 


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